“…To verify the effectiveness of the proposed QL-AO, it is compared with the most classic algorithms, GA and PSO, three novel algorithms, ABC, CS and JAYA, and the basic AO. In addition, Q-learning-based genetic algorithm (QL-GA) and Q-learning-based artificial bee colony algorithm (QL-ABC), proposed by Chen et al [35] in 2020 and Long et al [36] in 2022, respectively, are selected as comparison algorithms. In fairness, the competitive algorithms used the same heuristic initialization method as QL-AO.…”