Duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of cross-cultural counseling.

Abstract

The relationship between cultural dissimilarity and the duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of counseling was studied in the context of 70 actual treatment dyads that varied as to the race of the counselor (white or nonwhite) and the client (white or nonwhite). Results indicated that white counselors provided fewer sessions than nonwhite counselors and that nonwhite clients expressed lower levels of overall satisfaction with counseling, regardless of counselor race. No differences in counseling effectiveness were observed as measured by counselor and client ratings of perceived relief, understanding, and coping. Relative to other treatment dyads, however, white clients seeing white counselors attributed their change more to counseling than to other, outside factors. Implications of these findings for cross-cultural counseling and research are noted.Recent research has focused on the dissatisfaction of nonwhite populations with traditional counseling (Pine,-1972), as reflected in their underutilization (Sue, 1973) and premature termination (Sue & McKinney, 1974) of counseling services. Many Cultural factors may contribute to this service deficiency, but researchers have paid particular attention to the impact of racial differences on the counseling process.It is generally acknowledged that racial groups differ in their values (Sue & Sue, 1977), beliefs (Schwebel, 1980), and behaviors (Herman, 1979), as well as their counseling needs (Westbrook, Miyares, & Roberts, 1978) and expectations (Yuen & Tinsley, 1981). If the counselor is not sensitive to such differences, they may serve as impediments to effective counseling (Sue, 1981, pp. 27-47;Sue & Sue, 1977). This notion has given rise to the suggestion that in the absence of specific training, individuals who share similar backgrounds may work together more effectively than those of different backgrounds.In support of this reasoning, some work has suggested that clients prefer racially similar counselors (PoichS & Banikiotes, 1982) and that this similarity may actually enhance counseling effectiveness (Fry, Krbpf, & Coe, 1980). Other evidence is inconsistent with these findings, however.Proctor and Rosen (1981), for example, found that treatment satisfaction and termination were unrelated to the racial makeup of counseling dyads. Even when the preference for a racially Requests for reprints should be sent to

A Review of the Empirical Basis for Counseling: Implications for Practice and Training

“…Atkinson (1985) further stressed that patterns seem to vary within ethnic groups, and general statements about minority use may be unwarranted. Neimeyer and Gonzales (1983) found that White clients were more satisfied with treatment than non-White clients were. Reviewing archival studies, Atkinson ( 1985) concluded that when compared with White clients, ethnic minorities received not only different but also less preferred forms of treatment, such as not being referred for individual counseling and being seen by a nonprofessional.…”

“…Orlinsky and Howard (1986) found that reflections or restatements to check the accuracy of the counselor's understanding of the client and to assist future self-exploration were neither beneficial nor detrimental. When clients were directed to attend and focus on their affective states, it was sometimes but not always helpful (Nichols, 1974). Little was accomplished when counselors used immediacy and focused clients on here-and-now events in counseling; furthermore, immediacy under conditions of low empathy and genuineness may even have been harmful .…”

“…Also, directing and focusing COUNSELOR EDUCATION AND SUPERVISION / JUNE 1991 / VOL. 30 the client's attention as a form of confrontation was sometimes important (Nichols, 1974); however, not all focusing was of equal importance. Orlinsky and Howard (1986) suggested that when counselors directed the conversation to the client's presenting problems, outcome was enhanced.…”

Counseling Outcome as a Function of Counselor Nationality for American Expatriate Clients

“…Among the studies that addressed issues related to ethnic/cultural match (e.g., Akutsu, Lin, & Zane, 1990;Bennett & BigFoot-Sipes, 1991;Flaskerud & Liu, 1991;Fujino, Okazaki, & Young, 1994;Niemeyer & Gonzales, 1983), three (Kim & Atkinson, 2002;Ricker, Nystul, & Waldo, 1999;Sue, et al, 1991) have direct implication for this study. In a study designed to evaluate treatment outcomes for minority clients as a function of ethnic/linguistic match, Sue et al (1991) evaluated five years (1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988) of information supplied from the Automated Information System of the Los Angeles County Department of Mental Health (U.S.).…”

Different Lenses: Variations in Clients’ Perception of Family Therapy by Race and Gender

“…First, a review of the individual psychotherapy literature on same and cross race therapy dyads suggests that the significance of race on clients' assessments of therapy changes over time (e.g., Neimeyer & Gonzales, 1983). That is, inconsistencies are found between data which come from initial sessions only and data collected over the course of therapy.…”