Drugs as instruments: A new framework for non-addictive psychoactive drug use

Abstract

Most people who are regular consumers of psychoactive drugs are not drug addicts, nor will they ever become addicts. In neurobiological theories, non-addictive drug consumption is acknowledged only as a "necessary" prerequisite for addiction, but not as a stable and widespread behavior in its own right. This target article proposes a new neurobiological framework theory for non-addictive psychoactive drug consumption, introducing the concept of "drug instrumentalization." Psychoactive drugs are consumed for their effects on mental states. Humans are able to learn that mental states can be changed on purpose by drugs, in order to facilitate other, non-drug-related behaviors. We discuss specific "instrumentalization goals" and outline neurobiological mechanisms of how major classes of psychoactive drugs change mental states and serve non-drug-related behaviors. We argue that drug instrumentalization behavior may provide a functional adaptation to modern environments based on a historical selection for learning mechanisms that allow the dynamic modification of consummatory behavior. It is assumed that in order to effectively instrumentalize psychoactive drugs, the establishment of and retrieval from a drug memory is required. Here, we propose a new classification of different drug memory subtypes and discuss how they interact during drug instrumentalization learning and retrieval. Understanding the everyday utility and the learning mechanisms of non-addictive psychotropic drug use may help to prevent abuse and the transition to drug addiction in the future.

KLB is associated with alcohol drinking, and its gene product β-Klotho is necessary for FGF21 regulation of alcohol preference

“…Increased alcohol drinking in humans and mice may be motivated by its reward properties or as a means to relieve anxiety and stress (17). In mice, FGF21 increases corticotropin-releasing hormone expression in hypothalamus, circulating glucocorticoid concentrations, and sympathetic outflow (18)(19)(20), which are linked to heightened anxiety.…”

CaM Kinases: From Memories to Addiction

“…Establishing and maintaining controlled drug consumption is based on systematic learning and memory retrieval of distinct behaviours, related to drug seeking, preparation, and consumption in a specific context [5,6]. Thereby, information is encoded within different behavioural systems, which can be summarized as "drug memories" [5,[7][8][9] (Box 1).…”

“…A striking criterion for drug abuse and addiction is that it severely threatens one's own and others well-being and health. As such, there is a persistent need to treat drug addiction effectively, and ideally reverse the behavioural repertoire of an affected individual back to normal.An important feature of drug addiction is that it develops from a behavioural repertoire, which is considered to be normal in many societies of the world: the controlled consumption and instrumentalization of psychoactive drugs [3,4].Establishing and maintaining controlled drug consumption is based on systematic learning and memory retrieval of distinct behaviours, related to drug seeking, preparation, and consumption in a specific context [5,6]. Thereby, information is encoded within different behavioural systems, which can be summarized as "drug memories" [5,[7][8][9] (Box 1).…”

The motor way: Clinical implications of understanding and shaping actions with the motor system in autism and drug addiction

“…results in a cluster of physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms; the addict seeks the substance despite the evident consumption-related problems, and such conduct is reinforcing both in positive and negative ways (Belin, Mar, Dalley, Robbins, & Everitt, 2008;Dalley, Everitt, & Robbins, 2011; for a review, see Everitt & Robbins, 2013). The idea that drug addiction is merely a willpower-related disorder or a way of managing psychological distress (Müller & Schumann, 2011;Pickard, 2011) is not only inappropriate from a neurobiological point of view (Ersche et al, 2013;Naqvi, Rudrauf, Damasio, & Bechara, 2007;Nutt, King, Saulsbury, & Blakemore, 2007; for a review, see Everitt et al, 2008), but is also dangerously misleading for the treatment of drug addicts (Chiu, Lohrenz, & Montague, 2008). Recently, a fierce debate on this point has been reported in the literature (Diana, 2011;Levy, 2013).…”