Drinking plain water is associated with decreased risk of depression and anxiety in adults: Results from a large cross-sectional study

Abstract

AIMTo investigate the relation between plain water drinking and risk of depression and anxiety among a large sample of Iranian adults.METHODSA total of 3327 Iranian general adults were included in this cross-sectional study. Validated Iranian version of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale was used to assess anxiety and depression. Water consumption was assessed by asking about the number of glasses of water that consumed daily. Water consumption was categorized into < 2, 2-5, and ≥ 5 glasses of water/d.RESULTSIn the crude model, the lowest level of water drinking (< 2 glasses/d) compared with reference group (≥ 5 glasses/d) doubled the risk of depression and anxiety (P < 0.0001). After adjusting potential confounders, this inverse link remained significant for depression (OR: 1.79; 95%CI: 1.32, 2.42; P < 0.0001), but not for anxiety (OR: 1.49; 95%CI: 0.98, 2.25; P = 0.109). In stratified analyses by sex, after controlling for potential confounders, water drinking < 2 glasses/d was associated with 73% and 54% increment in the risk of depression in men and women, respectively (P < 0.05), whilst no significant association was observed for anxiety either in men or in women.CONCLUSIONWe found inverse associations between plain water consumption and depression. Also, these findings showed a tended risky association, but not statistically significant, between lower levels of water consumption and anxiety. These findings warrant evaluation in prospective and clinical trials studies to establish the plausible role of water in mental health status.

COVID-19 Pandemic and Remote Education Contributes to Improved Nutritional Behaviors and Increased Screen Time in a Polish Population-Based Sample of Primary School Adolescents: Diet and Activity of Youth during COVID-19 (DAY-19) Study

“…It is known that the consumption of fruits and vegetables may have a positive effect on general mental health, as it may promote higher levels of optimism and self-efficacy, reduce psychological distress, and protect against depressive symptoms [ 85 ]. Similarly, water intake may contribute to a decreased risk of depression and anxiety [ 86 ]. Taking this into account, it can be assumed that the observed changes in dietary behaviors are beneficial, as they may promote not only the physical but also the mental well-being of individuals.…”

The Correlation between Dietary Pattern with the Prevalence and Degree of Depression in Female Students of SMAK St. Louis Surabaya

“…This result is in line with the statement of Haghighatdoost (2018) who examined the relationship between water consumption with the risk of depression and anxiety in adults in Iran. 21 In his research, he did not find any relationship between the frequency of water consumption with the risk of depression. Stevenson (2016) also found that the increase in water quality and quantity did not have any correlation with psychological stress in women.…”

Causal influence of dietary habits on the risk of major depressive disorder: A diet-wide Mendelian randomization analysis

“…Some evidence suggests that fruit, vegetable, coffee, water, and moderate alcohol consumption are protective factors for MDD [10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17]; but several other studies have failed to replicate these associations [6, 7, 8, 9, 19]. Considering potential residual bias, insufficient power, and a lack of temporality in cross-sectional studies, a carefully designed study with a large sample size, such as an MR study, is therefore required to help resolve this controversial issue.…”

“…Similarly, alcohol consumption was shown to be associated with increased risk of MDD in some studies [6, 7, 8, 9] but not in the others [10, 11, 12]. Several other potential protective factors for MDD were identified through randomized controlled trials and observational studies, including coffee and caffeine intake [13], omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake [14], fruit and vegetable intake [15], frequent fish consumption [16], plain water intake [17], and decreased fat intake (with induced body weight loss) [18]. However, there were also studies showing null association of MDD with consumption of tea and coffee [19], as well as fish [20].…”