Does Race Matter for Police Use of Force? Evidence from 911 Calls

Abstract

This paper examines race and police use of force using data on 1.6 million 911 calls in two cities, neither of which allows for discretion in officer dispatch. Results indicate White officers increase force much more than minority officers when dispatched to more minority neighborhoods. Estimates indicate Black (Hispanic) civilians are 55 (75) percent more likely to experience any force, and five times as likely to experience a police shooting, compared to if White officers scaled up force similarly to minority officers. Additionally, 14 percent of White officers use excess force in Black neighborhoods relative to our statistical benchmark. (JEL H76, J15, K42, R23)

Police‐perpetrated racism and health in African American and Black communities

“…In other words, neighborhood context—not just target race—increases the probability of mistaken shooting decisions, with AABs who have interactions with the police in less safe neighborhoods being the most at risk (Kahn & Davies, 2017). In accordance with these findings, Hoekstra and Sloan (2022) documented that white police officers are five times more likely to use force involving a gun in neighborhoods that are primarily AAB (80% or more). Due to historical segregation and redlining, AABs are more likely to reside in and traverse more disadvantaged neighborhoods (neighborhoods characterized by low median household income; an imbalanced ratio of positive and negative resources; disrepair and neglect of the neighborhood environment, high rates of crime and neighborhood safety threats; Cagney et al., 2009; Ross, 2000; Roux et al., 2001) and are placed at increased risk as a result of historical and current racist practices and systems.…”

“…According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (Tapp & Davis, 2022), AAB (6%) and Hispanic (3%) persons were more likely to experience the threat of force or use of nonfatal force during their most recent police contact in 2020 relative to white persons (2%). Other estimates indicate that AAB civilians are 55% more likely to experience any force relative to white civilians (Hoekstra & Sloan, 2022). Notably, disparities in non‐lethal use of force have been shown to persist after controlling for crime rates and arrests (Goff et al., 2016), indicating that the disparate treatment of white and AAB civilians is not rooted in neighborhood or city‐level crime and arrest rates, but rather in racist policies and practices (Jackson et al., 2021; Ross, 2015; Ross et al., 2021).…”

Police in the rearview mirror: Social marginalization, trauma, and fear of being killed.

“…Social maltreatment, which can range from microaggressions to discrimination and violence against people of color, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and more (LGBTQ+) people, and other groups, is long-standing and pervasive in North American culture (American Historical Association, 2020; Casey et al, 2019; Mooney, 2017; Sue et al, 2007). This includes maltreatment by law enforcement personnel, often involving discrimination, overpolicing, and unnecessary aggression, and associated elevated rates of police stops and searches (Pierson et al, 2020), greater use of force (Hoekstra & Sloan, 2022), and shootings.…”

The police and those policed as intergroup par excellence: Current trends and future prospects

“…In the United States, a long line of research evidence has documented the disproportionate outcomes that racial and ethnic minority groups face during their interactions with police. For example, several studies have found that minority groups are more likely to be stopped (Gelman et al, 2007; Smith & Petrocelli, 2001), searched (Engel & Calnon, 2004; Leinfelt, 2006; Wright et al, 2021), arrested (Kochel, 2011), and to have force used against them (Hoekstra & Sloan, 2022; Morrow et al, 2017; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002). These disparities exert a serious toll on the health and well-being of minority communities (Graham et al, 2020; McLeod et al, 2020).…”