Does Movement Matter? Prefrontal Cortex Activity During 2D vs. 3D Performance of the Tower of Hanoi Puzzle

Abstract

In the current study, we used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to compare prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity in adults as they performed two conditions of the Tower of Hanoi (ToH) disk-transfer task that have equivalent executive function (EF) but different motor requirements. This study explored cognitive workload, here defined as the cognitive effort utilized while problem-solving by performance output. The first condition included a two-dimensional (2D) computerized ToH where participants completed trials using a computer mouse. In contrast, our second condition used a traditional, three-dimensional (3D) ToH that must be manually manipulated. Our aim was to better understand the role of the PFC in these two conditions to detect if PFC activity increases as a function of motor planning. Twenty right-handed, neurotypical adults (10M/10F, = 24.6, SD ± 2.8 years old) participated in two blocks (one per condition) of three 1-min trials where they were asked to solve as many puzzles as possible. These data were analyzed using a mixed effects ANOVA with participants nested within blocks for 2D vs. 3D conditions, presentation order (leading block), individual participants, and regions and additional follow-up statistics. Results showed that changes in oxygenated hemoglobin, ΔHbO, were significantly higher for 3D compared to 2D condition ( p = 0.0211). Presentation order and condition interacted significantly ( p = 0.0015). Notably, a strong correlation between performance and ΔHbO existed between blocks 1 and 2 ( r = −0.69, r 2 = 0.473, p < 0.01) when the 3D condition was initially performed, in contrast to the 2D condition where no significant correlation was seen. Findings also showed a significant decrease in ΔHbO between the first and second block ( p = 0.0015) while performance increased significantly for both 3D and 2D conditions ( p < 0.005). We plan to use this information in the future to narrow the potential points of impairment on the perception-cognition-action continuum in certain developmental disabilities.

Neural and Kinematic Metrics of Handwriting in Neurotypical Adults

“…Signal acquisition was optimized by 1) cleaning the participants' forehead with an alcohol swab prior to positioning the sensor band, 2) excluding any hair between the sensor and the participants' forehead, 3) adjusting Gain and LED Current until raw wavelength signal was verified to be between 40 -4000 mV, and 4) reducing the ambient light in the testing room. Each participant began with a 1-minute resting period in which they sat with their eyes open looking at a black cross sign on the computer screen [14].…”

“…Data were subsequently converted to changes in concentration through the modified Beer-Lambert law [48] and depicted into 4 outcome measures: change in oxygenated hemoglobin (∆HbO), change in deoxygenated hemoglobin (∆HbR), total change in hemoglobin (∆HbT) and total change in oxygenation (∆Oxy). We restricted our analysis to ∆HbO because preliminary analysis from our previous work found a high correlation among ∆HbO, ∆HbR, ∆HbT, and ∆Oxy [14].…”

“…Furthermore, fNIRS indirectly measures neural activity by measuring changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin concentrations [20] [21]. While fNIRS only maps surface cortical activity, it is a relatively robust technology that can cope with motion artifacts and as such, has been previously utilized in neuroimaging studies of a variety of motor skills including but not limited to bipedal ambulation [22] [23] [24] [25], fine motor skills [26] [27] [28] [29], and manual puzzle solving [14].…”

Backward Walking Induces Significantly Larger Upper-Mu-Rhythm Suppression Effects Than Forward Walking Does

“…The planning and execution of walking involves several cortical and subcortical areas [ 19 , 20 ]. The activation of the brain areas, due to motor planning and execution, can be measured using several image and signal acquisition methods, including magnetoencephalography [ 21 , 22 ], functional magnetic resonance imaging [ 23 , 24 ], functional near-infrared spectroscopy [ 25 , 26 ], and EEG [ 27 , 28 ]. Among these modalities, EEG has several distinct advantages in assessing brain responses to locomotion.…”

Neuromuscular Control of the Agonist–Antagonist Muscle Coordination Affected by Visual Dimension: An EMG-fNIRS Study

“…It was noted that motor planning is an ability about anticipating motor demands and PFC plays a critical role in motor planning [23]. Extensive neuroimaging researches have demonstrated that concurrent activation in the PFC and MC while motor planning [24], [25] and execution [26].…”