Does behaviour predict weight gain during adulthood in captive group-living rhesus macaques?

Zijlmans, Dian G.M.; Berg, Lisette M. van den; Langermans, Jan A. M.; Sterck, Elisabeth H. M.

doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105748

Cited by 3 publications

(3 citation statements)

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“…Existing human data about the effect on body weight from ENG are limited and inconclusive ( 37 ). Whereas body weight development is multifactorial, factors such as age, social rank, and diet are known to have considerable effect on body weight in macaques ( 38 , 39 ). Evaluation of the in-treatment effect of ENG on body weight was, therefore, beyond the scope of this study.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Long-acting reversible contraception with etonogestrel implants in female macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis)

Maaskant,

Scarsi,

Meijer

et al. 2024

Front. Vet. Sci.

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IntroductionContraception is often required for management and population control purposes in group-housed and free-roaming non-human primates. Long-acting reversible contraceptives, including subdermal progestin-releasing implants, are preferred as they eliminate challenges associated with frequent administration. Etonogestrel (ENG)-releasing subdermal implants are reversible and long-acting for a minimum of 3 years, and are commercially available for human use as Implanon® or Nexplanon®.MethodsA retrospective analysis was performed detailing the contraceptive effectiveness and reversibility of subdermal placement of one-fourth or one-third of an ENG implant (68 mg/implant) in 129 female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and 67 cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at the Biomedical Primate Research Centre (Rijswijk, Netherlands). Furthermore, single cross-sectional ENG serum concentrations were measured for 16 rhesus and 10 cynomolgus macaques, and hemoglobin and blood chemistry pre-ENG and at timepoints >0.5, >1.5, and > 2.5 years post-ENG insertion were evaluated for 24 rhesus macaques. Finally, data were obtained using trans-abdominal ultrasound regarding the influence of ENG on uterine volume and endometrial thickness in 14 rhesus and 11 cynomolgus macaques.ResultsAs a contraceptive ENG was in 99.80% (CI 93.50–99.99) and 99.95% (CI 99.95–100) effective in rhesus and cynomolgus macaques, respectively. Prolonged ENG durations of implant use in 14 rhesus macaques (range 3.1–5.0 years) and eight cynomolgus macaques (range 3.2–4.0 years) resulted in no unintended pregnancies. A total of 17 female macaques were allowed to breed after ENG removal, and among them, 14 female macaques (82%) had an uneventful delivery. Serum ENG concentrations with a median ENG duration of 1.2 years (range 0.1–6.0 years) and 1.9 years (range 0.6–4.7 years) resulted in median concentrations of 112 pg./mL (range 0–305 pg./mL) and 310 pg./mL (range 183–382 pg./mL) for rhesus and cynomolgus macaques, respectively. ENG had no clinical effect on hemoglobin and blood chemistry parameters nor on the thickness of the endometrial lining or uterus volume.ConclusionThis study indicates that both one-fourth and one-third of the ENG implants are effective, long-acting, reversible, and safe contraceptive to use in macaques.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Long-acting reversible contraception with etonogestrel implants in female macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis)

Maaskant,

Scarsi,

Meijer

et al. 2024

Front. Vet. Sci.

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“…A large proportion of the between‐individual variance in BCSs currently also remains unexplained (about 26%). A potential contributing factor is an individual's behavior, as low activity levels have been associated with high relative fat mass in long‐tailed and rhesus macaques (Bauer et al, 2012; Wolden‐Hanson et al, 1993; Zijlmans et al, 2022), although low activity might also be a consequence of being overweight, rather than a cause (Zijlmans et al, 2022). Another potential factor is the gut microbiome, as it is known to influence how much energy is harvested from the diet and is highly individualized, possibly leading to BCS differences among individuals that are fed the same diet.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Visually assessed body condition shows high heritability in a pedigreed great ape population

Torfs

Eens

Laméris

et al. 2023

American J Primatol

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Body condition, a measure for relative fat mass, is associated with primate health, fitness, and overall welfare. Body condition is often influenced by dietary factors, age, and/or sex, but several body condition measures (body weight, weight‐to‐height ratios, and so on) also show high heritability across primate species, indicating a role of genetic effects. Although different measures for body condition exist, many require direct handling of animals, which is invasive, time‐consuming, and expensive, making them impractical in wild and captive settings. Therefore, noninvasive visual body condition score (BCS) systems were developed for various animal species, including macaques and chimpanzees, to visually assess relative fat mass. Here we evaluate the utility of a visual BCS system in bonobos by assessing (1) inter‐rater reliability, (2) links with body mass, a traditional hands‐on measure of condition, and (3) the factors driving individual variation in BCS. We adapted the chimpanzee BCS system to rate 76 bonobos in 11 European zoos (92% of the adult population). Inter‐rater reliability was high (s* = 0.948), BCSs were positively associated with body mass (β = 0.075) and not predicted by diet, sex, or age, nor were they associated with a higher abundance of obesity‐related diseases. Instead, BCSs showed high levels of heritability (h2 = 0.637), indicating that a majority of body condition variation in bonobos is attributable to genetic similarity of the individuals. This is in line with reported h2‐values for traditional body condition measures in primates and provides support for the reliability of visual BCS systems in great apes. The results of this study emphasize an often unanticipated role of genetics in determining primate body fat and health that has implications for the management of captive primates. Application of this tool in wild populations would aid to unravel environmental from genetic drivers of body condition variation in primates.

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“…Food intake was mainly measured on a group-level, as food intake per individual is notoriously difficult to quantify in a group-setting (Chivers 1998;Wilson et al 2008;Zijlmans et al 2022b). The amount of monkey chow was weighed in the morning when provided to the animals, and the remaining amount was weighed again at a random time during the day (between 8.25 h and 16.30 h).…”

Section: Behavioural Observationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Fat or fit: correlates, consequences and control of overweight in group-housed primates

Zijlmans¹

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Primates are highly social animals and should ideally be housed together with conspecifics in social groups. Although group-housing enhances the psychological wellbeing of captive primates, it also leads to an inherent risk of some individuals becoming overweight. Indeed, overweight occurs in almost a quarter of group-housed primates. Measuring and monitoring overweight is important because overweight primates (1) perform less natural behaviour and (2) have a higher risk of health problems. The best way to measure overweight in group-housed primates is a species-specific weight-for-height index. Measuring this non-invasively minimizes disturbances to the primates. Variation in body weight can be measured non-invasively by letting individuals voluntarily step on a scale in their home enclosure. In the colony of the Biomedical Primate Research Centre (BPRC) in Rijswijk, overweight cannot be explained by differences in housing condition, stress levels or behaviour of the primates, while the natural dominance rank has a strong effect. This complicates the application of husbandry strategies to reduce overweight as social organization and dominance rank should not be disrupted. Overweight prevention should therefore be favored over overweight reduction, and this can be achieved by providing diets that mimic the natural diets of wild primates with regard to provisioning, composition and amount of food. Altogether, this thesis provides insight in the correlates, consequences and control of overweight in group-housed primates. Having an overweight management program is recommended for all facilities housing primates to ensure good primate welfare.

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Does behaviour predict weight gain during adulthood in captive group-living rhesus macaques?

Cited by 3 publications

References 52 publications

Long-acting reversible contraception with etonogestrel implants in female macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis)

Long-acting reversible contraception with etonogestrel implants in female macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis)

Visually assessed body condition shows high heritability in a pedigreed great ape population

Fat or fit: correlates, consequences and control of overweight in group-housed primates

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