“…All articles included static balance tests that required the children to balance on one leg. Some articles ( n = 11) reported this simply on a firm surface with eyes open [ 32 , 34 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 ]. Stankovic and Radenkovic [ 71 ] also asked children to stand on a single leg on a firm surface, repeating this with their eyes closed.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Twelve articles used time, in seconds, as the outcome measure for the single-leg tests [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 76 ]. The range of time the single-leg stance was maintained for on a hard surface with eyes open ranged from 6.67 s [ 63 ] to 87.6 s [ 65 ], with eyes closed, 6.9 s was the lowest outcome [ 71 ] with 33.62 s being the highest [ 73 ].…”
Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4–5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4–5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls’ and boys’ performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4–5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4–5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted.
“…All articles included static balance tests that required the children to balance on one leg. Some articles ( n = 11) reported this simply on a firm surface with eyes open [ 32 , 34 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 ]. Stankovic and Radenkovic [ 71 ] also asked children to stand on a single leg on a firm surface, repeating this with their eyes closed.…”
Section: Resultsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Twelve articles used time, in seconds, as the outcome measure for the single-leg tests [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 76 ]. The range of time the single-leg stance was maintained for on a hard surface with eyes open ranged from 6.67 s [ 63 ] to 87.6 s [ 65 ], with eyes closed, 6.9 s was the lowest outcome [ 71 ] with 33.62 s being the highest [ 73 ].…”
Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4–5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4–5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls’ and boys’ performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4–5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4–5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted.
“…Especially preschool children lose their interest in highly structured activities quickly, due to their limited attention span (Oliveira et al, 2019). Therefore, for future studies with preschool children great caution should be given to the attractiveness of the intervention content.…”
Postural control and muscle strength are important factors for the performance of everyday activities and reduce the possibility of fall-related injuries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a balance training program using action songs on balance and strength of preschool children. A total of 51 preschool children were randomly divided into an intervention group (25 children) and a control group (26 children). The intervention group received a balance training program with action songs (six weeks, two times a week, total 12 sessions), while the control group followed the normal curriculum. Prior to and after the intervention, both groups were assessed in dynamic balance (walking on balance beams), static balance (single-leg stance on forceplate and Flamingo test) and strength (long jump and handgrip). The results showed that the intervention group performed significantly better in the dynamic balance and Flamingo test. There were no significant differences in the centre of pressure (CoP) displacement in the Medio-Lateral direction (CoP/ML), the Anterio-Posterior (CoP/AP), and the strength variables. The reliability of the single-leg test on the forceplate was moderate. Moreover, there were no correlations between balance and muscle strength variables. It can be concluded that the balance training program with action songs constitutes an effective activity for developing preschool children’s balance, but not strength. Perhaps balance and muscle strength are independent of each other and may have to be trained with complementary activities. Moreover, the results of the study and the behaviour of the children during the one-leg stance test on the forceplate gave rise to questions regarding the appropriateness of this test for preschool children.
“… x Capio et al [ 80 ] Observational x ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ Chagas et al [ 81 ] Observational ? ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ Condello et al [ 82 ] Experimental ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ De Oliveira et al [ 83 ] Experimental x x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ De Waal and Pienaar [ 84 ] Observational ✓ x x x x ✓ ✓ Derman et al [ 85 ] Experimental x ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ Duncan et al [ 86 ] Experimental ✓ ✓ a …”
Section: Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Two authors (PH and MM) extracted descriptive data (Tables 3 and 4 ) for the 49 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Of the included studies, 15 used an observational study design [ 71 , 80 , 81 , 84 , 89 , 90 , 97 , 98 , 102 , 105 , 107 , 108 , 112 , 113 , 119 ] (Table 3 ), with 34 studies [ 72 – 79 , 82 , 83 , 91 – 96 , 99 – 101 , 103 , 104 , 106 , 109 – 111 , 114 – 118 ] using an experimental design (Table 4 ). Fig.…”
Background
Motor competence has important developmental associations with aspects of physical health, but there has been no synthesis of longitudinal associations with cognitive and social-emotional health.
Objectives
The first aim was to present a conceptual model that positions motor competence as a mediator between physical activity and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. The second aim was to synthesize the association of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development using longitudinal observational and experimental evidence, in particular to (i) identify the role of task, individual, and environmental characteristics in moderating the association between motor and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes and (ii) synthesize the strength of evidence pertaining to domain-specific relationships.
Methods
This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched. Following study screening and risk-of-bias assessment by two authors, 49 eligible studies were identified for inclusion and grouped by study design. Evidence for domain-specific paths between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes was synthesized by calculating the significant analyses in the hypothesized direction, divided by the total number of analyses for that path. These percentages were then collated for each domain outcome. This collated influence was classified as either no association (0–33%), written as ‘0’, or indeterminate/inconsistent (34–59%), written as ‘?’ If there were fewer than three studies in the domain, the strength of evidence was classified as insufficient (I).
Results
Of the 49 studies, 35% were able to satisfy six or more of the seven risk-of-bias criteria. Longitudinal observational evidence about domain-specific and global associations of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development is indeterminate. The included studies also did not provide evidence for a consistent moderating role of age and sex. Some preliminary experimental evidence does support the role of motor competence in moderating the influence of cognitively enriched physical activity on cognitive outcomes, especially working memory and social-emotional skills. However, too few studies were appropriately designed to acknowledge the moderating role of contextual mechanisms.
Conclusions
Between-study heterogeneity means it was not possible to identify definitive domain- and construct-specific relationships between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. To further develop our understanding, it is important that researchers acknowledge the complexity of these relationships within rigorous study designs.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
