Diversity of Oral Microbiome of Women From Urban and Rural Areas of Indonesia: A Pilot Study

Abstract

Objective: The studies on the influence of geographical and socio-economic factors on the oral microbiome remain underrepresented. The Indonesia basic health research (RISKESDAS) 2018, showed an increasing trend in non-communicable diseases compared with the previous report in 2013. The prevalence of diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and obesity are reported to be higher in urban areas than in rural areas. Interestingly, non-communicable diseases were found to be more prevalent in women than men. This pilot study aimed to examine the oral health and oral microbiome derived from tongue samples of healthy Indonesian women from urban and rural areas.Methods: Twenty women aged 21–47 years old from West Jakarta, residents of DKI Jakarta (n = 10) as representative of the urban area, and residents of Ende, Nangapanda, East Nusa Tenggara (n = 10) as representative of the rural area were recruited for this pilot study. The participants were evaluated by the Simplified Oral Hygiene Index (OHI-S) according to the criteria of Greene and Vermillion and divided into three groups. High-throughput DNA sequencing was performed on an Illumina iSeq 100 platform.Results: The principal component analysis displayed a marked difference in the bacterial community profiles between the urban and rural localities. The presence of manifest was associated with increased diversity and an altered oral bacterial community profile in the urban women. Two bacterial taxa were present at significantly higher levels (adjusted p < 0.01) in the urban oral microflora (Genus Prevotella and Leptotricia) could account for this difference irrespective of the individual oral hygiene status. The linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe) analysis revealed several distinct urban biomarkers. At the species level, Leptotrichia wadei, Prevotella melaninogenica, Prevotella jejuni, and P. histicola, show an excellent discriminatory potential for distinguishing the oral microflora in women between urban and rural areas. Further, using SparCC co-occurrence network analysis, the co-occurrence pattern in the dominant core oral microbiome assembly was observed to be specific to its ecological niche between two populations.Conclusions: This is the first pilot study demonstrating the characterization of the oral microbiome in Indonesian women in urban and rural areas. We found that the oral microbiome in women displays distinct patterns consistent with geographic locality. The specific characterization of the microbiota of Indonesian women is likely linked to geographical specific dietary habits, cultural habits, and socio-economic status or the population studied.

Prevotella species as oral residents and infectious agents with potential impact on systemic conditions

“…However, also some differences have been reported; a comparison of bacterial communities in saliva of a total of 2,815 individuals showed significantly higher relative abundances of the genus Prevotella and P. melaninogenica , in particular, in orally healthy Japanese than South Korean study participants [ 32 ]. A recent study compared the tongue microbiome of 10 urban and 10 rural women, aged 20–45 years, in Indonesia [ 33 ]. In the urban group, Prevotella and Leptotrichia were among the most abundant genera, and P. melaninogenica, P. histicola, P. pallens , and P. salivae were the most discriminative Prevotella species between the urban and rural groups, probably connected to different environmental and lifestyle factors.…”

“…nigrescens and P. loescheii [ 35 ], whereas P. intermedia ( sensu stricto ) has been a rare finding [ 19 , 22 , 36 ]. Interestingly, P. jejuni , which is a pigment-producing species closely related to P. melaninogenica , but not originally accounted for as an oral species, proves to be present in oral specimens [ 33 , 37 , 38 ]. Recoveries from a general population-based study, looking for PCR-based carriage rates of periodontal pathogens in saliva of 1,294 adults living in southern Finland, only 13.9% were positive for P. intermedia [ 39 ], which was more frequent in women than in men and in smokers than in non-smokers.…”

“…Despite being originally isolated from a breast abscess, it was assumed that the habitat of P. timonensis is below the waistline. In contrast, P. jejuni , originally isolated from the jejunum of a celiac child, seems to be among the resident members of the oral cavity [ 33 , 37 , 38 ].…”

Short- term effect of probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri consumption on the salivary microbiome profile of subjects undergoing orthodontic treatment with fixed appliances

“…Sequencing runs were first analysed in the Illumina’s Sequencing evaluation Viewer version 2.4.7 for analytical run quality controls assessments [ 12–14 ]. Pre-processing of the raw sequencing data and the Quality Control (QC) was assessed as previously described [ 15 ]. The 16S metagenomics workflow based on the Local Run Manager v2.0 used the Illumina-curated version of the Greengenes database (greengenes.secondgenome.com/downloads/database/13_5) for taxonomic classification of 16S rRNA centred amplicon reads.…”

Preliminary exploratory research on the application value of oral and intestinal meta-genomics in predicting subjects' occupations–A case study of the distinction between students and migrant workers

“…At the genus level, the college athletes had higher levels of Faecalibacterium and Bifidobacterium but lower levels of Bacteroides . Additionally, studies have shown that different economic incomes can also influence the composition of intestinal microbiota (He et al, 2018 ; Widyarman et al, 2021 ; Gacesa et al, 2022 ; Zuniga-Chaves et al, 2023 ). Meanwhile, traditional amplicon-based sequencing methods have limitations in providing comprehensive microbial information, which has led researchers to focus more on species differences rather than the impact of microbial functional genes on hosts (Fricker et al, 2019 ).…”