Dityrosine in food: A review of its occurrence, health effects, detection methods, and mitigation strategies

Abstract

Protein and amino acid oxidation in food products produce many new compounds, of which the reactive and toxic compound dityrosine, derived from oxidized tyrosine, is the most widely studied. The high reactivity of dityrosine enables this compound to induce oxidative stress and disrupt thyroid hormone function, contributing to the pathological processes of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, cognitive dysfunction, aging, and age‐related diseases. From the perspective of food safety and human health, protein‐oxidation products in food are the main concern of consumers, health management departments, and the food industry. This review highlights the latest research on the formation pathways, toxicity, detection methods, occurrence in food, and mitigation strategies for dityrosine. Furthermore, the control of dityrosine in family cooking and food‐processing industry has been discussed. Food‐derived dityrosine primarily originates from high‐protein foods, such as meat and dairy products. Considering its toxicity, combining rapid high sensitivity dityrosine detection techniques with feasible control methods could be an effective strategy to ensure food safety and maintain human health. However, the current dityrosine detection and mitigation strategies exhibit some inherent characteristics and limitations. Therefore, developing technologies for rapid and effective dityrosine detection and control at the industrial level is necessary.

Effects of Dityrosine on Lactic Acid Metabolism in Mice Gastrocnemius Muscle During Endurance Exercise via the Oxidative Stress-Induced Mitochondria Damage

“…36,37 The daily exposure of the human body to Dityr through milk powder is approximately 32 μg/kg BW/day. 7 In a 6-week preliminary study, we determined that gavage with Dityr at a dose of 320 μg/kg BW/day resulted in mitochondrial damage in pancreatic cells. 26 Therefore, in this study, after 7 days of acclimation, the mice were randomly divided into 4 groups: CON group: mice received daily intragastric administration of a saline solution (0.9% NaCl).…”

“…However, the relevant mechanisms have not been resolved. Dityr is widely found in overly processed food and can cause oxidative stress and energy metabolism disorders . Therefore, in this study, we hypothesized that Dityr could induce oxidative stress in the body, resulting in oxidative damage to mitochondria in gastrocnemius muscle cells, thereby affecting gastrocnemius muscle function and ultimately impacting the performance in endurance exercise.…”

“…Dityr is widely found in overly processed food and can cause oxidative stress and energy metabolism disorders. 7 Therefore, in this study, we hypothesized that Dityr could induce oxidative stress in the body, resulting in oxidative damage to mitochondria in gastrocnemius muscle cells, thereby affecting gastrocnemius muscle function and ultimately impacting the performance in endurance exercise. This study will provide further theoretical support for the effect of highly oxidized foods on the athletic performance of athletes.…”

“…During food processing, protein oxidation can be induced directly by various prooxidation substances that cause oxidative modification of proteins or amino acids, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). It can also occur indirectly through secondary products of oxidative stress during processing, such as lipid peroxidative products. , Notably, free radicals attack proteins and cause protein oxidation, which is mainly reflected in the modification of amino acid residues, leading to molecular structural changes, including the break of peptide bonds, polymerization and cross-linking between molecules, loss of sulfhydryl groups, formation of carbonyl compounds, and other oxidation derivatives, such as 3-nitrotyrosine and dityrosine (Dityr), which can lead to the decline of food quality and nutrition. − Recent medical research has confirmed the health risks associated with highly processed foods rich in oxidized proteins. − Among all amino acids, tyrosine is relatively easy to be oxidized, and its main oxidation product is Dityr. , Its unique molecular structure, linked by a covalent bond rather than a peptide bond, makes it resistant to proteolytic degradation and acid hydrolysis . Consequently, Dityr is often used as an important criterion for assessing the level of protein oxidation in food .…”

Dityrosine Aggravates Hepatic Insulin Resistance in Obese Mice by Altering Gut Microbiota and the LPS/TLR4/NF‐κB Inflammatory Pathway

“…Recent studies have suggested that the food processing acts as an important factor in the link between food and health. [1,2] During food processing, protein is easily oxidized by the direct and indirect action of reactive species, [3,4] resulting in changes of molecular structure, including the formation of cross links between molecules, loss of sulfhydryl groups, formation of carbonyl compounds. [5] The consumption of highly-oxidized foods is closely related to the onset and development of several chronic non-communicable health problems, including energy metabolism disorder, [6,7] hepatic steatosis, [8] and brain damage.…”