Distribution of macro- and micronutrient intakes in relation to the meal pattern of third- and fourth-grade schoolchildren in the city of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala

Abstract

Objective: Our objective was to assess the distribution of energy, macro-and micronutrient intakes by meal (breakfast, lunch, dinner and combined snacks) in a cross-sectional sample of schoolchildren. Design: Cross-sectional dietary survey in schoolchildren. Setting: Twelve private and public schools in the urban setting of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Subjects: A total of 449 schoolchildren (from higher and lower socio-economic strata) were enrolled in the study. Methods: Each child completed a single, pictorial 24 h prospective diary and a face-to-face interview to check completeness and estimate portion sizes. Estimated daily intakes were examined by mealtime as: (i) absolute intakes; (ii) relative nutrient distribution; and (iii) critical micronutrient density (i.e. nutrient density in relation to the WHO Recommended Nutrient Intakes/median age-specific Guatemalan energy requirements). Results: The daily distribution of energy intake was 24 % at breakfast, 30 % at lunch, 23 % at dinner and 23 % among snacks. Lunch was also the leading meal for macronutrients, providing 35 % of proteins, 27 % of fat and 30 % of carbohydrate. The distribution of selected micronutrients did not follow the pattern of energy, insofar as lunch provided relatively more vitamin C and Zn, whereas breakfast led in terms of vitamins A and D, thiamin, riboflavin, folate, Ca and Fe. Conclusions: Meal-specific distribution of energy, macro-and micronutrients provides a unique and little used perspective for evaluation of children's habitual intake, and may provide guidance to strategies to improve dietary balance in an era of coexisting energy overnutrition and micronutrient inadequacy. Keywords Meal pattern Macronutrients Micronutrients Schoolchildren GuatemalaDietary intake is a major determinant of both the nutritional status and the general health and well-being of an individual. An optimal diet will supply adequate -but not excessive -amounts of all essential nutrients, while maximizing foods and dietary substances that promote long-term health and avoiding dietary constituents related to ill health (1) . Both greater dietary variety (number of different foods and beverages consumed) and dietary diversity (selection from an array of food groups) are associated with more nutritious and more healthful intake patterns (2) . What is an inherent reality is that foods are consumed in various meals and meal settings over the course of a day. Moreover, factors of household economics, cultural and culinary conventions and personal convenience will dictate the frequency, size and composition of the meals consumed throughout the day. A few investigators have analysed individual meal contributions to the day's intake of macro-or micronutrients. These pioneering studies identified dietary patterns that deviate strongly from recommended population nutrient goals in children (3)(4)(5) , adolescents (6,7) and adults (8) . The studies on children and adolescents are mostly European studies. The findings emphasize the difference in nutritional v...

Does consuming breakfast influence activity levels? An experiment into the effect of breakfast consumption on eating habits and energy expenditure

“…In addition, considering genders separately, the mean daily heart rate was not significantly different between conditions for female participants (t 24 5 0?690, P 5 0?497), nor was pedometer score for either male or female participants (t 18 Table 3 shows energy intake, the energy intake-time index and nutrient intakes of participants. The energy consumed per day did not vary with condition (t 43 5 1?540, P 5 0?131), either among male participants (t 20 5 1?593, P 5 0?127) or among female participants (t 22 5 0?581, P 5 0?567). Furthermore, no difference was found when high-frequency breakfast eaters were considered (male participants: t 13 5 0?883, P 5 0?393; female participants: t 15 5 0?274, P 5 0?788).…”

Chrono-nutrition: a review of current evidence from observational studies on global trends in time-of-day of energy intake and its association with obesity

“…One other study focused on meal and snack patterns and daily eating frequency (24) . Overall, eleven full-text articles were included in the present review (25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35) . These studies are summarised in Table 1. There was a wide variation in the dietary assessment methods, with the majority of studies using food records and 24 h recalls.…”

“…Moreover, the definition of eating occasions varied widely. In most studies, eating occasions consisted of pre-defined meal slots (25,26) , and in a few occasions survey members self-reported the type of eating occasion with the aid of a list containing standardised meal and snack names. Sjoberg et al (35) used a diet history method alongside an interview with a dietitian.…”

“…For instance, Vossenaar et al assessed the distribution of energy, macro-and micronutrient intakes in a crosssectional sample of school children in Guatemala attending third and fourth grades (26) . In this survey, lunch contributed the greatest proportion of daily energy intake, while breakfast and dinner contributed an equal proportion of daily energy intake (26) . Macronutrients followed a similar pattern of distribution as energy, whilst the distribution of micronutrients varied.…”

Perfil de atividade física e consumo alimentar autorrelatado de escolares de 7 a 10 anos da rede pública e privada .

“…There is evidence that higher PA levels and better eating patterns are related to higher socioeconomic and educational levels in adults 10,11 ; however, this subject has not been extensively addressed in pediatric populations in developing countries. Further, few studies have assessed differences in food habits and PA levels according to type of school [12][13][14] . This topic is of utmost interest, given that type of school (private vs. public) is related to socioeconomic level in developing countries and that government policies primarily target economically disadvantaged individuals.…”