Distribution of Antibiotic-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Pathogens in Potable Spring Water of Eastern Indian Himalayas: Emphasis on Virulence Gene and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli

Abstract

Every year millions of people die due to fatal waterborne diseases around the world especially in developing countries like India. Sikkim, a northeastern state of India, greatly depends on natural water sources. About 80% of the population of Sikkim depends on natural spring water for domestic as well as agricultural use. Recent waterborne disease outbreaks in the state raises a concerning question on water quality. In this study, we analyzed water quality especially for the detection of Enterobacteriaceae members from four districts of the state. Isolation with selective culture media techniques and taxonomic characterization of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria with 16S rRNA gene showed the prevalence of Escherichia coli (37.50%), Escherichia fergusonii (29.41%), Klebsiella oxytoca (36.93%), Citrobacter freundii (37.92%), Citrobacter amalonaticus (43.82%), Enterobacter sp. (43.82%), Morganella morganii (43.82%), Hafnia alvei (32.42%), Hafnia paralvei (38.74%), and Shigella flexneri (30.47%) in the spring water of Sikkim. Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) showed resistance of the isolates to common antibiotics like ampicillin, amoxicillin as well as to third generation antibiotics like ceftazidime and carbapenem. None of the isolates showed resistance to chloramphenicol. E. coli isolated from spring water of Sikkim showed presence of different virulence genes such as stx1 (81.81%), elt (86.66%), and eae (66.66%) along with resistance gene for ampicillin (CITM) (80%), quinolones (qnrB) (44.44%), tetracycline (tetO) (66.66%), and streptomycin (aadA1) (66.66%). The data indicates a high incidence rate of multiple antibiotic resistant enteric bacteria in the spring water of Sikkim. Additionally, the presence of enteric bacteria in the water samples indicates widespread fecal contamination of the spring water.

Prevalence of Extended-Spectrum Beta Lactamase blaCTXM, blaSHV and blaTEM Genes in Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Clinical Samples of Patients With Urinary Tract Infections

“…The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance in gram-negative bacilli, such as E. coli, is one of the most important problems in healthcare systems worldwide. 16 In this study, the antibiotic resistance patterns of 100 E. coli isolated from UTI samples were investigated. Based on the findings of this study, isolates were mostly resistance against ampicillin (n = 66; 66%), trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole (n = 54; 54%), and cephalothin (n = 40; 40%) (Table 2).…”

Antibacterial Efficiency and Phytochemical Assessment of Stereospermum Chelonoides (L.F.) DC Flower and Leaf Mixed Powder Extracts

“…10 illustrated the predicted molecule structure on the basis of chemical and spectral data evidences have been characterized as isolated compound was 3,3′,4′,5,7-Pentahydroxyflavone 3-glucoside (Quercetin 3-O-glucoside) from Stereospermum chelonoids extract. 39,40,41,42 . Organisms showed MDR due to inappropriate use of antibiotics, use of antibiotics in veterinary, use of antibiotics in agricultural services, virulence of organisms and production of enzymes like beta lactamases could be responsible for antibiotic resistance 43, 44, = 47 .…”

Microbial Characteristics of the Combined Ozone and Tea Polyphenols or Sodium Hypochlorite Disinfection in the Pipe Network

“…Among them, Citrobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella belong to Enterobacteriaceae and are used as a microbiological indicator of water quality and fecal contamination. Additionally, they have varying degrees of drug resistance, as opportunistic pathogens have a greater impact on human health [34]. In contrast, these Enterobacteriaceae microorganisms accounted for a smaller proportion after the combined O 3 /TP disinfection, indicating that tea polyphenols are more effective than sodium hypochlorite as an auxiliary disinfectant in controlling the above-mentioned opportunistic pathogens, and the biosafety of the water was higher.…”