7. Solubility of CaCO 3 314 2.3. Effect of Pressure on the Thermodynamic Constants 315 2.4. Effect of Temperature on CO 2 fugacity (f CO 2 ) in Seawater 315 2.5. Effect of Temperature on pH in Seawater 316 2.6. Dissociation of Buffers in Seawater 316 3. Methods Used To Measure Carbonate Parameters 316 3.1. Methods Used To Measure pH 317 3.2. Methods Used To Measure Total Alkalinity 318 3.3. Methods Used To Measure Total Inorganic CO 2 319 3.4. Methods Used To Measure Partial Pressure of CO 2 (pCO 2 ) 319 3.5. Internal Consistency 319 4. Modeling the Ionic Interactions for the Carbonate System 320 5. Distribution of Carbonate Species in the Oceans 322 5.1. Partial Pressure of CO 2 322 5.2. pH 325 5.3. Total Alkalinity 325 5.4. Total Inorganic CO 2 326 5.5. CaCO 3 Dissolution in Seawater 326 6. Fossil Fuel CO 2 Input to the Oceans 328 7. Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Partial Pressure of CO 2 331 7.1. Coral Reefs 333 7.2. Coccolithophores and Foraminifera 333 7.3. Pteropods 333 7.4. Ocean Processes 333 8. Sequestering CO 2 in the Oceans 333 9. Acknowledgments 334 10. References 334