Disparity in Risk Factor Severity for Early Childhood Blood Lead among Predominantly African-American Black Children: The 1999 to 2010 US NHANES

Abstract

There is no safe detectable level of lead (Pb) in the blood of young children. In the United States, predominantly African-American Black children are exposed to more Pb and present with the highest mean blood lead levels (BLLs). However, racial disparity has not been fully examined within risk factors for early childhood Pb exposure. Therefore, we conducted secondary analysis of blood Pb determinations for 2841 US children at ages 1-5 years with citizenship examined by the cross-sectional 1999 to 2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The primary measures were racial disparities for continuous BLLs or an elevated BLL (EBLL) ≥5 µg/dL in selected risk factors between non-Hispanic Black children (n = 608) and both non-Hispanic White (n = 1208) or Hispanic (n = 1025) children. Selected risk factors included indoor household smoking, low income or poverty, older housing built before 1978 or 1950, low primary guardian education <12th grade/general education diploma (GED), or younger age between 1 and 3 years. Data were analyzed using a regression model corrected for risk factors and other confounding variables. Overall, Black children had an adjusted +0.83 µg/dL blood Pb (95% CI 0.65 to 1.00, p < 0.001) and a 2.8 times higher odds of having an EBLL ≥5 µg/dL (95% CI 1.9 to 3.9, p < 0.001). When stratified by risk factor group, Black children had an adjusted 0.73 to 1.41 µg/dL more blood Pb (p < 0.001 respectively) and a 1.8 to 5.6 times higher odds of having an EBLL ≥5 µg/dL (p ≤ 0.05 respectively) for every selected risk factor that was tested. For Black children nationwide, one in four residing in pre-1950 housing and one in six living in poverty presented with an EBLL ≥5 µg/dL. In conclusion, significant nationwide racial disparity in blood Pb outcomes persist for predominantly African-American Black children even after correcting for risk factors and other variables. This racial disparity further persists within housing, socio-economic, and age-related risk factors of blood Pb outcomes that are much more severe for Black children.

The Exposure of Pb to Hair and Nails in Children Around “X” Coal Mines Using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Method

“…It is caused by children's behavior to bite and swallow anything that makes them easier to expose by pollutants. These results are also supported by a literature review conducted on African-American Black children from 1999 to 2010, which states that children have a higher risk of Pb poisoning in their growth periods (12). Inhaled Pb in humans will be stored in the lungs by 35-40%, and 95% will enter the bloodstream.…”

“…Pb exposure in children and adulthood is very important to analyze because it will affect their intelligence, behavior, memory, and brain volume in the longterm exposure (12). While, a short period of Pb exposure might be impacted to the prefrontal cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum.…”

“…These results indicate that children are more likely to be exposed to Pb. Furthermore, the Pb exposure for a long time will decrease intelligence, behavior, memory, and brain volume in adulthood (12). So, it can conclude that study on Pb exposure in children is very important to do.…”

Chronic Developmental Lead Exposure increases μ-Opiate Receptor Levels in the Adolescent Rat Brain

“…Recent events indicate that a significant number of municipalities suffer from Pb 2+ contamination in drinking water in homes and schools throughout the United States (Hanna-Attisha et al, 2016). Childhood Pb 2+ intoxication is most likely to occur in low-income, inner city communities where there is a higher number of Pb 2+ contaminated homes and decaying infrastructure with a disproportionate burden in disadvantage African American and Hispanic communities (Cassidy-Bushrow et al, 2017;Rothweiler et al, 2007;White et al, 2016;Yeter et al, 2020).…”

Neighborhood-Level Lead Paint Hazard for Children under 6: A Tool for Proactive and Equitable Intervention

“…Additionally, the risk of lead exposure is not evenly distributed across the US population, with greater risks for communities of color and residents in urban and low-income areas where older, lead-contaminated homes are located. Studies reported consistent and significant racial disparity in lead exposure across the nation with higher blood lead levels for non-Hispanic Black children compared to non-Hispanic whites even after correcting for other housing or socioeconomic risk factors [ 14 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Therefore, additional strategies need to be deployed to remedy these racial disparities in lead exposure.…”