Disentangling genes, attachment, and environment: A systematic review of the developmental psychopathology literature on gene–environment interactions and attachment

Abstract

The role of genetics in relation to attachment is of continued interest to developmental psychology. Recent research has attempted to disentangle genetic main effects, environmental effects, and gene and environment (G × E) interactions in the development of attachment security/insecurity and disorganization. We systematically reviewed associations between gene markers and attachment, including G × E interactions, identifying 27 eligible studies. Inconsistent results emerged for associations between both gene effects and G × E interactions on attachment organization. Where G × E interactions used attachment as the environmental factor in the interaction, we observed more consistent results for differential susceptibility of G × E interactions on offspring behavior. Small sample size and heterogeneity in measurement of environmental factors impacted on comparability of studies. From these results, we propose that the future of research into the role of genetic effects in attachment lies in further exploration of G × E interactions, particularly where attachment acts as an environmental factor impacting on other child developmental outcomes emerging from the caregiving environment, consistent with differential susceptibility approaches to developmental psychopathology. In addition, from a methodological perspective, establishing the role of gene markers in such models will require a shift toward contemporary genomics, including genome-wide analysis (including novel genes and chromosomal loci), and epigenetic individual variations.

Factors in the neurodevelopment of negative urgency: Findings from a community-dwelling sample

“…CADM2 , DBH , AVPR1A , DRD2 , SLC6A3 and SLC6A4 are implicated in executive dysfunction, emotional reactivity and impulse-control-based psychopathology ( Albayrak et al., 2013 ; Golds et al., 2020 ; Kieling et al, 2008 ; Levin et al, 2009 ; Mick et al, 2010 :; Zald and Treadway, 2017 ), and FOXP2 , ATP2C2 and ROBO1 are implicated in speech and language, among others (see Koomar and Michaelson, 2020 ).…”

DAT1 and Its Psychological Correlates in Children with Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study

“…Recent studies, rooted in the developmental psychopathology framework [22], have employed complex bio-psycho-social approaches evaluating the interaction of environmental (maternal psychopathology) and individual factors (bio/genetic characteristics of offspring), especially in samples of early children [23,24], also reporting significant associations between children's DAT1 methylation and polymorphism with maternal psychopathology [18,19,25]. Notwithstanding these important results, no previous study evaluated DAT1 polymorphism and methylation status in children with avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), a new diagnostic category included in the section of Feeding and Eating Disorders of the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) [26].…”

An Italian Pilot Study on Epigenetic Factors in Early Children’s Eating Disorders

“…Today, empirical evidence and theoretical models underline the complexity of the developmental trajectories of children's psychopathological problems, in which it is possible to track down various aspects, such as early family maladaptive relationships, parental psychopathological traits and specific genetic predispositions of the children (Cimino et al, 2018;Golds et al, 2020;Pennell et al, 2016). Thus, as suggested by the new research lines of developmental psychopathology framework (Cicchetti, 2013;Davies & Cicchetti, 2004), since children's physical and emotional well-being develop over time and through early relational experience, behavioral and psychological problems in early childhood can be the outcome of a chain of interconnected factors that deserve to be assessed, individually and in their interaction (Tronick & Hunter, 2016).Consistently, the scientific literature examines different aspects of the topic in question, focusing in particular on psychological, biological and social variables in ARFID, also with reference to the different diagnostic subcategories (Lucarelli et al, 2018).…”

“…Besides, other characteristics that seem to increase the chance of developing feeding disorder and other problems in early childhood, such as genetic risk factors, are less well understood. To our knowledge, many studies on genetic and epigenetic elements focused primarily on adolescents and adult population, while little attention has been given to samples of early children (Cimino et al, 2019;Golds et al, 2020). Moreover, to our knowledge, no study was yet conducted on DAT1 polymorphism and methylation in children with avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID).…”