Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day

Babb, Stephanie J.; Crystal, Jonathon D.

doi:10.3758/bf03193188

Cited by 97 publications

(79 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…The baited arms, including the chocolate arm, changed location on each trial. Babb and Crystal (2006) found that the rats were more likely to enter the arm that had contained the chocolate at the appropriate time (either later that day or 24 h later, depending on when they had learned that the chocolate would be replenished) than at the inappropriate time, indicating that they too had learned about the what, where, and when of a previous experience.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

“…That does seem reasonable for an episodic memory; however, how one would assess such a unit is not clear. The second criterion, flexibility, suggests that if one is given new information about the status of an outcome, one should be able to modify one's behavior accordingly (see Babb & Crystal, 2006). Although flexibility can be considered an important cognitive ability, it is not clear how it is either a necessary or a sufficient condition for episodic memory.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Thus, it appears that the scrub jays learned about the what, when, and where of a previous food-caching experience. Babb and Crystal (2006) used a similar approach to study episodic-like memory in rats. They first allowed rats to enter several baited arms of a radial maze, one of which contained a unique chocolate reward.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In the animal research cited (Babb & Crystal, 2006;Clayton & Dickinson, 1999a, 1999b, subjects are trained to answer an expected question. Thus, in the case of the scrub jays, the acquired rule might have been "if the memory (trace) of having cached worms is strong, look where you cached the worms, but if the memory of having cached worms is weak, look where you cached the peanuts.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked

Singer

Zentall

2007

Learning & Behavior

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked

Singer

Zentall

2007

Learning & Behavior

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“…Babb and Crystal (2005, 2006a, 2006b) and Naqshbandi, Feeney, McKenzie, and Roberts (2007) adapted this approach for use with rats. In these experiments, a distinctive flavor (e.g., chocolate) was encountered at a randomly selected arm in an eight-arm radial maze during a study episode, in addition to standard "chow"-flavored food.…”

Section: What-where-when Memorymentioning

confidence: 99%

Animal models of episodic memory

Crystal¹

2018

CCBR

Self Cite

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People retrieve episodic memories about specific earlier events that happened to them. Accordingly, researchers have sought to evaluate the hypothesis that nonhumans retrieve episodic memories. The central hypothesis of an animal model of episodic memory is that, at the moment of a memory assessment, the animal retrieves a memory of the specific earlier event. Testing this hypothesis requires the elimination of nonepisodic memory hypotheses. A number of case studies focus on the development of animal models of episodic memory, including what-where-when memory, source memory, item-in-context memory, and unexpected questions. Compelling evidence for episodic memory comes from studies in which judgments of familiarity cannot produce accurate choices in memory assessments. These approaches may be used to explore the evolution of cognition. Keywords: episodic memory, what-where-when memory, source memory, binding, item-in-context memory IntroductionFundamental aspects of human cognition raise a natural question, namely, How widely distributed are elements of cognition among nonhuman animals? Exploring the distribution of cognitive processes in animals may provide insight into the evolution of cognition (Emery & Clayton, 2004;Gallistel, 1990). This review focuses on episodic memory (see Table 1). Students of human memory focus on episodic memory because it stores personal past experiences of an individual. In this respect, episodic memory is self-referencing. By contrast, other memory systems store facts without retaining other features that accompany memory storage. Moreover, students of human memory have been concerned with subjective experiences that are thought to accompany episodic memory retrieval in people (Tulving, 1985(Tulving, , 1987. However, documenting behavioral expression of a putative subjective experience is problematic in animals. This review advocates that it is profitable to focus on the content of episodic memories, rather than the subjective experiences that may accompany episodic memory. The central hypothesis of an animal model of episodic memory is that, at the moment of a memory assessment, the animal remembers back in time and retrieves a memory of the earlier event or episode (Crystal, 2013b(Crystal, , 2016a(Crystal, , 2016b). An important alternative explanation exists whenever the animal can solve the memory test without remembering back to the specific earlier event. In this review, I focus on judgments of familiarity as a primary nonepisodic memory alternative. According to this view, the presentation of a stimulus gives rise to a memory trace that passively decays as a function of time. Because the age of memories can be detected from a comparison of memory trace strengths, an animal may solve a new-old memory test by following a relatively simple rule such as, Choose the item that currently generates the lowest level of familiarity. Critically, an animal that uses judgments of relative familiarity need not retrieve an episodic memory of the earlier event (see details that follow). Oth...

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A comparative analysis of the dopaminergic innervation of the executive caudal nidopallium in pigeon, chicken, zebra finch, and carrion crow

Eugen

Tabrik

Güntürkün

et al. 2020

J of Comparative Neurology

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Despite the long, separate evolutionary history of birds and mammals, both lineages developed a rich behavioral repertoire of remarkably similar executive control generated by distinctly different brains. The seat for executive functioning in birds is the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) and the mammalian equivalent is known as the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Both are densely innervated by dopaminergic fibers, and are an integration center of sensory input and motor output. Whereas the variation of the PFC has been well documented in different mammalian orders, we know very little about the NCL across the avian clade. In order to investigate whether this structure adheres to species-specific variations, this study aimed to describe the trajectory of the NCL in pigeon, chicken, carrion crow and zebra finch. We employed immunohistochemistry to map dopaminergic innervation, and executed a Gallyas stain to visualize the dorsal arcopallial tract that runs between the NCL and the arcopallium. Our analysis showed that whereas the trajectory of the NCL in the chicken is highly comparable to the pigeon, the two Passeriformes show a strikingly different pattern. In both carrion crow and zebra finch, we identified four different subareas of high dopaminergic innervation that span the entire caudal forebrain. Based on their sensory input, motor output, and involvement in dopamine-related cognitive control of the delineated areas here, we propose that at least three morphologically different subareas constitute the NCL in these songbirds. Thus, our study shows that comparable to the PFC in mammals, the NCL in birds varies considerably across species.

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Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day

Cited by 97 publications

References 30 publications

Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked

Pigeons learn to answer the question “where did you just peck?” and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked

Animal models of episodic memory

A comparative analysis of the dopaminergic innervation of the executive caudal nidopallium in pigeon, chicken, zebra finch, and carrion crow

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