Direction of aggression as a prognostic variable in mental illness.

Depression and Hostility in Self‐Mutilation

“…Almost all the workers interested in the expression of hostility have noted that, for a given individual, hostility may be predominantly inward directed or intropunitive (for example, expressed as self criticism or ruminations of guilt) or directed outwardly, often expressed towards others and sometimes referred to as extrapunitive (Albee, 1950; Buss & Durkee, 1957; Gottschalk, Gleser & Springer, 1963; Foulds, 1965). It has also been found that patients displaying intropunitive hostility have a better prognosis than patients directing hostility outwardly (Albee, 1950; Feldman & Swenson, 1954).…”

Methodology and research on the prognostic use of psychological tests.

“…A series of studies under the direction of Pascal investigated the interrelationships of these variables within a sample of varied psychotics. It was found that acute onset (Swensen & Pascal, 1954b) and aggression directed toward oneself (Feldman, Pascal, & Swensen, 1954) related significantly to favorable outcome when other prognostic variables were controlled. However, precipitating stress (Cole, Swensen, & Pascal, 1954), affective expression (Bayard & Pascal, 1954), and duration of illness (Swensen & Pascal, 1954a) did not relate to outcome in their sample when the effect of other prognostic variables was held constant.…”

Social competence and outcome in psychiatric disorder.

“…A number of studies have attempted to conform to sound methodological requirements, but they have lacked a theoretical framework (Bayard & Pascal, 1954;Cole, Swensen, & Pascal, 1954;Dunham & Meltzer, 1946;Feldman, Pascal, & Swensen, 1954;Malamud & Render, 1939;Pascal et al, 1953;Schofield et al, 1954;Swensen & Pascal, 1954a, 1954b. This empirical emphasis characterizes the literature on prognosis and has been especially evident in the search for prognostic predictors among case history data.…”