Direct Permeation of Nanoparticles across Cell Membrane: A Review

Abstract

Nanoparticles have attracted much attention as a key material for new biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. For success in these applications, the nanoparticles are required to translocate across the cell membrane and to reach to inside of the cell. Among several translocation pathways of nanoparticles, the direct permeation pathway has a great advantage due to its high delivery efficacy. However, despite many research efforts, key properties and factors for driving the direct permeation of nanoparticle and its underlying mechanisms are far from being understood. In this article, experimental and computational studies regarding the direct permeation of nanoparticles across a cell membrane will be reviewed. Firstly, experimental studies on the nanoparticle-cell interactions, where spontaneous direct permeation of nanoparticles was observed, are reviewed. From the experimental studies, potential key physico-chemical properties of nanoparticles for their direct permeation are discussed. Secondly, physical methods such as electroporation and sonoporation for delivering nanoparticles into cells are reviewed. Current status of technologies for facilitating the direct permeation of nanoparticle is presented. Finally, we review molecular dynamics simulation studies and present the latest findings on the underlying molecular mechanisms of the direct permeation of nanoparticle.

Multinanoparticle Translocations in Phospholipid Membranes: Translocation Modes and Dynamic Processes

“…However, the NPs are adsorbed by the membranes, pulled back, and finally embedded into the membranes. In SP-I, the membranes are not damaged in the stages, thereby exhibiting a good elasticity; the NPs are aggregated, as extensively reported in the previous simulations [15,23,53]. For the second mode, SP-II, as shown in FIG.…”

“…Particles exhibit a variety of diffusion motions from anomalies to classical diffusion on a wide range of time scales, which has prompted researchers to propose different models [12,13]. In general, the two basic ways that the NPs transfer through a membrane are endocytosis and direct penetration [14,15]. Endocytosis, also known as endocytosis or endocytosis [16,17], is the process of transporting extracellular materials into cells through the deforming movement of lipid membranes.…”

<p>Internalization and effects on cellular ultrastructure of nickel nanoparticles in rat kidneys</p>

“…Nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide (TiO 2 NPs), gold (AuNPs), silicon dioxide (SiO 2 NPs), iron oxide (Fe 3 O 4 NPs) and silver (AgNPs) have been found to penetrate directly into the plasma membrane. 1 Modes of direct penetration include diffusion, permeation, pore formation 35 and wrapping by membrane. 5 Although free individual NiNPs are detected close to the basement membrane, the mode of direct penetration couldn't be confirmed, but the most probable pathway may be through translocation.…”

“…The size of NiNPs used in this study was 20 nm in diameter; this could facilitate NiNPs entrance into cells. 1 Nevertheless, NPs with a size ranged of 20-50 nm are considered appropriate application involving drug delivery. 39 NPs with a size less than 20 nm (eg 10 nm) have been shown to accumulate in the liver and spleen of rats, 40 while NPs of larger size (20-100 nm) have been found to accumulate in the kidney.…”

“…Nanoparticles (NPs) are particles that have dimensions equivalent to 100 nm or less. 1 The increased use of NPs in the industry and in biomedical applications has led to increased public concern regarding the biological and medical effects of NPs. 2 Over the past several decades, nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) have been widely used in hydrogen storages, as chemical catalysts, in ceramic capacitors, in sensors and conductive paint, and in nanomedicine.…”