Dimensions of racism and their impact on partner selection among men of colour who have sex with men: understanding pathways to sexual risk

Abstract

While many studies have established the relationship between experiences of racism and sexual risk among men who have sex with men of colour, the pathways by which this occurs are underdeveloped. To address this gap, we must better investigate the lived realities of racism in the gay community. In this study, we had the unique opportunity to examine experiences of racism among African American, Latino and Asian/Pacific Islander men who have sex with men living in Los Angeles through focus groups and individual in-depth interviews. We found three themes of racism: exclusion from West Hollywood and the mainstream gay community, sexual rejection based on race/ethnicity, and sexual stereotypes. There were differences across the three racial groups in the experiences of each theme, however. We then considered how racism impacted partner selection and found that race played a salient role in determining power differentials within mixed-race partnerships. Finally, we discussed several future areas for research that can better establish pathways between racism and sexual risk.

Understanding Structural Barriers to Accessing HIV Testing and Prevention Services Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men (BMSM) in the United States

“…Based on interconnected social inequalities that exist on meso and micro structural levels of society, experiences of stigma and discrimination due to race [15, 17, 85–97] and sexual orientation [15, 22, 86, 92, 96, 98–104] among BMSM are significant barriers to HIV testing and prevention services within the structural dimension of informal social influence and control (Table 1). Consistent with studies that have found that stigma and discrimination are correlates of HIV risk among BMSM [105–108] (Table 3), there is strong evidence that experiences of stigma and discrimination due to race and sexual orientation—operating through social interactions at healthcare visits and within social networks—negatively affect access to HIV testing and prevention services among this population [14, 22, 58, 60, 109–112].…”

Sexually explicit racialised media targeting men who have sex with men online: a content analysis of high-risk behaviour depicted in online advertisements

“…The diversity of body images depicted for White men may serve to affirm and validate multiple standards of beauty among White men, while for Black men, the limited ad themes and focus on thug masculinity not only provide a narrow depiction of Black identities, but perpetuate existing racialised sexual stereotypes and suggest that thug masculinity is normative for Black men in sexual contexts (which is not the case). Consumption of stereotyped imagery may have implications for the partners of Black men who could develop racialised and fetishised sexual expectations, in which they expect Black men to perform in sexual encounters (Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Ro et al 2013; Wilson et al 2009). Moreover, the hypermasculine imagery depicted by Black models could also have the potential to induce psychological distress among Black men who view these depictions as subtle forms of racism (Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Coltrane and Messineo 2000), as well as lead to a diminished sense of self-esteem among Black men who do not meet this stereotypical ideal of Black masculinity (Brennan et al 2013; Wilson et al 2009; Ro et al 2013; Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Icard 1986).…”

“…Consumption of stereotyped imagery may have implications for the partners of Black men who could develop racialised and fetishised sexual expectations, in which they expect Black men to perform in sexual encounters (Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Ro et al 2013; Wilson et al 2009). Moreover, the hypermasculine imagery depicted by Black models could also have the potential to induce psychological distress among Black men who view these depictions as subtle forms of racism (Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Coltrane and Messineo 2000), as well as lead to a diminished sense of self-esteem among Black men who do not meet this stereotypical ideal of Black masculinity (Brennan et al 2013; Wilson et al 2009; Ro et al 2013; Paul, Ayala, and Choi 2010; Icard 1986). Indeed, research among diverse male samples shows that men who are frequently exposed to sexually explicit media and other media depictions of an ‘ideal’ body image, experience higher levels of depression, muscle dissatisfaction, and social physique anxiety (Duggan and McCreary 2004; Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn 2004).…”

Pleasure, Affection, and Love Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) versus MSM of Other Races: Countering Dehumanizing Stereotypes via Cross-Race Comparisons of Reported Sexual Experience at Last Sexual Event

“…The resultant stereotypes have revolved around Black male hetero sexuality and potentially contributed to misguided beliefs about other sexual orientations being unnatural or even impossible among Black men (Collins, 2005). However, within the MSM community, where non-heterosexuality is indeed recognized to exist (at least at the behavioral level), similar dehumanizing stereotypes have been documented (Bowleg, 2013; Paul, Ayala, & Choi, 2010; Ro, Ayala, Paul, & Choi, 2013; Wilson et al, 2009). MSM of other races have characterized sex with Black men as “rough” and “animalistic” (Wilson et al, 2009), consistent with Black MSM’s reports of being treated as a “sexual object” or “Mandingo fantasy” (Paul et al, 2010; Ro et al, 2013).…”

“…However, within the MSM community, where non-heterosexuality is indeed recognized to exist (at least at the behavioral level), similar dehumanizing stereotypes have been documented (Bowleg, 2013; Paul, Ayala, & Choi, 2010; Ro, Ayala, Paul, & Choi, 2013; Wilson et al, 2009). MSM of other races have characterized sex with Black men as “rough” and “animalistic” (Wilson et al, 2009), consistent with Black MSM’s reports of being treated as a “sexual object” or “Mandingo fantasy” (Paul et al, 2010; Ro et al, 2013). Even Black men themselves have endorsed stereotypes related to bodily rhythm, aggression, and prowess in describing members of their own group (Wilson et al, 2009), again emphasizing physicality rather than emotionality as a defining feature.…”