Difference in the risk of discrimination on psychological distress experienced by early wave infected and late wave infected COVID-19 survivors in Japan

Abstract

The psychological distress experienced by coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) survivors after recovery from the illness is amplified by discrimination endured because of their infection status. However, the difference in the risk of facing discrimination and risk of experiencing psychological distress in the early and late waves of the COVID-19 pandemic remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether the risk of facing discrimination because of infection status was lower in the early or late waves and whether risk of discrimination on psychological distress was more serious in later, rather than earlier waves. We conducted two online surveys to collect data from survivors divided into two groups. The participants with scores of five or more on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale were identified as having experienced psychological distress. The participants were identified as having experienced discrimination based on infection status if they had endured being blamed, some type of discrimination, or having themselves or their families maligned. The timing of infection was split into infected during early waves of the pandemic for 2021 participants and infected during later waves of the pandemic for 2022 participants. Modified Poisson regression analyses were performed using experiences of discrimination as criteria and timing of infection as predictors. Modified Poisson regression analyses were further performed using the presence of psychological distress as a criteria and experiences of discrimination and timing of infection as the criteria, in addition to interaction effect of these es. The data of 6010 participants who were infected in early waves and 5344 participants who were infected in later waves were analyzed. The risks of being blamed, some forms of discrimination, and participants and their families being maligned were significantly lower in the group who were infected in later waves than those infected in earlier waves. Experiences of discrimination were highly associated with psychological distress in those infected in later waves than those infected in earlier waves, while only being blamed showed a significant association. Risk of discrimination was found to be lower in those infected in later waves, whereas risk of discrimination on psychological distress was shown to be more serious in those infected in later waves. Therefore, we submit that it is more important to support COVID-19 survivors who face discrimination, than it is to attempt to decrease the current discriminatory climate caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Role of Stigma in Moderating the Effects of Loneliness on Mental Health Problems Among Patients With COVID-19 in South Korea

“…Such faulting tendencies are particularly pronounced in societies that strongly emphasize collective norms [ 59 ]. Meanwhile, our findings indicate a substantial decline in stigma levels toward individuals infected during the latter half of 2021 compared to those infected in the early wave of the COVID-19 pandemic; this was consistent with prior research [ 60 , 61 ]. This decline in discriminatory behavior may be attributed to the accumulation of knowledge about COVID-19 over time and its dissemination among the general population, resulting in a less stigmatizing social environment [ 62 ].…”

“…For example, information-based strategies can be used to reduce negative attitudes and perceived stigma within communities [ 64 ]. The intervention for HIV-related stigma highlights the effectiveness of implementing anti-stigmatizing campaigns [ 60 ] utilizing unifying symbols such as the globally recognized red ribbon, and fostering community activities as effective measures [ 53 ]. The red ribbon is a powerful symbol of HIV/AIDS awareness, care, empathy, and support globally [ 63 ].…”

The Association between COVID-19-Related Discrimination and Probable Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among Patients with COVID-19 in Sapporo, Japan

“…Moreover, a recent study showed that COVID-19-related discrimination on psychological distress was more severe among those infected in later phases. 30 While the interpretation of the adjusted OR of probable PTSD in Wave 6 requires careful consideration, our findings emphasize the importance of preventing social discrimination, not only in the initial phases of the pandemic but throughout the entire pandemic duration.…”

“…23 Another study showed that COVID-19 patients experienced significantly more COVID-19-related discrimination compared to individuals not infected with the virus from the same region. 24 This discrimination was associated with persistent psychiatric symptoms after recovery from primary SARS-CoV-2 infection, such as mood symptoms, 25 sleep disturbance, 26,27 anxiety, 25,28 psychological distress, 29,30 and probable PTSD. [31][32][33] A previous study conducted exclusively in Columbia between October 2020 and April 2021 showed that social discrimination against COVID-19 patients resulted in odds ratios (OR) of approximately 2.5 or higher for probable PTSD.…”

“…A c c e p t e d V e r s i o n 7 during the period from April 2020 to November 2021, without a specific focus on probable PTSD. 29,30 Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the association between COVID-19related discrimination and probable PTSD among COVID-19 patients infected between February 2020 and February 2022. Our study considered hospitalization, and history of psychiatric illnesses due to COVID-19 as contributing factors.…”