Dietary Intake of Fat, Fiber and Other Nutrients Is Related to the Use of Vitamin and Mineral Supplements in the United States: The 1992 National Health Interview Survey

Abstract

Supplement intake is hypothesized to increase the risk of some diseases while decreasing the risk of others. Both diet and lifestyle behaviors, however, may be associated with supplement use and confound observed associations. Nutrient intake from a food frequency questionnaire, demographic characteristics and lifestyle among supplement users and nonusers were examined in 11,643 adults who participated in the 1992 National Health Interview Survey Epidemiology Supplement. Forty-six percent reported taking a supplement in the past year; 24% reported daily use. Daily use was highest among women, whites, those 75 y of age or older, those at or above the poverty level, those with more than 12 y of education, former smokers, and light drinkers consuming less than one alcoholic beverage per week. When controlled for sociodemographic factors, smoking status and drinking habits, there were no significant (P < 0.01) differences in dietary nutrient intake between daily and occasional supplement users. Compared with those of nonusers, diets of vitamin supplement users were lower (P < 0.001) in fat and higher in fiber and vitamins A and C for both men and women and higher in vitamin E and calcium for women only. In general, diet, demographic and lifestyle characteristics of supplement users are typical of patterns associated with low risk of chronic disease.

Predictors for cod-liver oil supplement use — the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study

“…The relationship between intake of dietary supplements and education level has been reported in other studies (Slesinski et al, 1996;Ervin et al, 1999;Balluz et al, 2000;Egeland et al, 2001). Observations on the relationship between subjective health and use of dietary supplement have been contradictory.…”

“…Further, our findings support previous studies in which predictors for dietary supplement use have been assessed. Several studies have found that subjects who take dietary supplements also are more likely to have a higher micronutrient intake from food (Koplan et al, 1986;Dorant et al, 1993;Slesinski et al, 1996;Kaartinen et al, 1997;Lyle et al, 1998;Dwyer et al, 2001). In a national dietary survey, Johansson et al (1998) found that cod-liver oil contributed 33% of the total intake of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids.…”

“…In addition, the Norwegian National Council on Nutrition and Physical Activity has recommended daily consumption of cod-liver oil supplements, partly because of the suspected vulnerability to vitamin D deficiency in the Norwegian population in relation to low intake in the diet and limited exposure to sunshine, which is the main source of vitamin D (Webb & Holick, 1988). However, numerous surveys on predictors for dietary supplement use have shown that subjects with the highest nutrient intake are the most likely to take dietary supplements (Koplan et al, 1986;Slesinski et al, 1996;Frank et al, 2000;Dwyer et al, 2001;Troppmann et al, 2002). This suggests that the most likely consumers are less likely to need it, and vice versa.…”

“…Several studies have shown that supplement taking has been associated with health-related factors such as age, gender, body mass index (BMI), socioeconomic status, physical activity, alcohol consumption, smoking, education, and diet (Slesinski et al, 1996;Lyle et al, 1998). Supplement users tend to have health behaviours associated with reduced risks of chronic diseases.…”

The influence of individual choices and attitudes on adiposity

“…We included a variable that distinguishes vitamin users from nonusers, hypothesizing that vitamin use is a marker for diets that are lower in fat and higher in fiber. 9,10 Respondents were asked if they agree or disagree with the statement that some people are born to be fat. We labeled this statement 'the gene theory', indicating that body mass is not the result of conscious choices but is predetermined.…”