Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women

Abstract

The bone is one of the relevant target organs of heavy metals, and heavy metal toxicity is associated with several degenerative processes, such osteoporosis and bone mineral alterations, that could lead to fractures. We aimed to study a presumed relationship between bone density, evaluated by quantitative bone ultrasound (QUS), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) and the dietary intake of cadmium, lead and mercury in healthy premenopausal women. A total of 158 healthy, non-smoking, premenopausal women were incorporated into the study. A validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was administered to assess intake during the preceding seven days. The median predicted dietary cadmium intake among the 158 women studied was 25.29 μg/day (18.62–35.00) and 2.74 μg/kg body weight/week (b.w./w) (1.92–3.83). Dietary lead intake was 43.85 μg/day (35.09–51.45) and 4.82 μg/kg b.w./w (3.67–6.13). The observed dietary mercury intake was 9.55 μg/day (7.18–13.57) and 1.02 μg/kg b.w./w (0.71–1.48). Comparisons, in terms of heavy metal intake, showed no significant results after further adjusting for energy intake. No statistically significant correlations between heavy metal intake and the QUS, DXA and pQCT parameters were observed. Levels of dietary exposure of cadmium, lead and mercury were mostly within the recommendations. We did not find associations between the QUS, DXA and pQCT parameters and the dietary intake of the studied heavy metals in healthy premenopausal women.

Dietary Cadmium Intake and Its Effects on Kidneys

“…In a U.S. study, FFQ estimated a mean dietary Cd intake of 10.4 μg/day (range: 1.74–31.6 μg/day) in women who participated in the Women’s Health Initiative [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. In Spain, the mean for dietary intake derived from FFQ was 29.87 μg/day (range: 20.41–41.04 μg/day) for postmenopausal women and 25.29 μg/day (range: 18.62–35 μg/day) for premenopausal women [ 19 , 20 ]. In Japan, the mean Cd intake that was estimated by the FFQ was 26.4 μg/day in one study [ 21 ].…”

“…This skepticism extends to most contaminants that reach foods through unpredictable processes. This problem is the likely cause of a failure to demonstrate an association between estimated Cd intake and the incidence of bone effects and breast cancer [ 17 , 19 , 20 , 23 , 24 ]. In striking contrast, urinary Cd excretion and blood Cd concentration correlate with the risk of developing of many diseases, even if the exposure to Cd is low [ 4 ].…”

Evaluation of two sample preparation methods for the determination of cadmium, nickel and lead in natural foods by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

“…In addition, heavy metals can cross the blood-brain and placental barriers and develop various mutagenic conditions. All these facts promote toxic metals to be prime targets for detection during quality control processes (Bernard 2016;de Oliveira et al, 2017;Foro Intergubernamental de Seguridad Química, 2006;Harangozo, 2016;Lasat, 2000;Lavado-García et al, 2017;Nava-Ruíz & Méndez-Armenta 2011;Rubio et al 2004).…”

Zinc and Cadmium Mapping in the Apical Shoot and Hypocotyl Tissues of Radish by High-Resolution Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (NanoSIMS) after Short-Term Exposure to Metal Contamination

“…Understanding of trace metal homeostasis and phyto-physiological processes has expanded considerably in recent decades and is being used in phytoremediation technologies (i.e., clean-up of metal-contaminated land by plants) (e.g., [1]), bio-fortification of food (i.e., improving nutritive value of crops regarding essential trace metals) (e.g., [2]) as well food safety/security from metal contamination (i.e., growing “metal-clean” food) [3]. Given that trace metals can accumulate in edible tissues (particularly underground ones, such as roots, tubers and hypocotyls) and/or primary nutrient deposition sites (e.g., young shots), consumption of vegetables (especially fresh (non-processed) that are nutritive highly valued) is one of the main entry routes of certain trace metals (Cd, Zn, Hg) into humans [4,5,6,7]. Over the last several decades, trace heavy metal Cd was one of the most frequently reported hazards (after mycotoxins, pathogens and pesticide residues) in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed [7] regulated by the European Food Safety Authority.…”

“…In most organisms (except, e.g., marine phytoplankton [8,9]), Cd has no biological function, representing threat to environmental/public health due to its role in a wide range of toxicological (e.g., growth retardation, yield reduction, and necrosis) and physiological disorders (e.g., hormonal disruption, carcinogenesis, alterations in vitamin metabolism and (re)absorption of nutrients, triggering secondary (oxidative) stress) [4,6,10] (see also review by Huang et al [5]). It is well known that similar physicochemical properties of the bioavailable forms of zinc (as an essential micronutrient; Zn 2+ ) and cadmium (Cd 2+ ) (e.g., [9]) result in competition for adsorption sites in the rhizosphere, uptake across the root–cell plasma membrane, and transport to shoots [4].…”