Dietary exposure assessment to Alternaria toxins in the European population

Abstract

Alternaria toxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that can contaminate cereals, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables. The chronic dietary exposure to four individual Alternaria toxins was estimated using 15,563 analytical results/4,249 samples (3,648 on alternariol (AOH), 3,654 on alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), 4,168 on tenuazonic acid (TeA) and 4,093 on tentoxin (TEN)). Most of the analytical results were left‐censored data (92%), with only 1,290 quantified results (mainly on ‘Oilseeds’ and ‘Grain milling products’). The highest exposure to AOH was estimated in ‘Toddlers’, with the mean exposure between 3.8 and 71.6 ng/kg body weight (bw) per day (minimum lower bound–maximum upper bound, (LB–UB)) and the 95th percentile exposure between 11.4 and 270.5 ng/kg bw per day (LB–UB). Overall, ‘Fruit and fruit products’ were the most important contributors to the dietary exposure to AOH. The highest exposure to AME was estimated in ‘Toddlers’, with mean exposure between 3.4 and 38.8 ng/kg bw per day (LB–UB) and 95th percentile exposure between 10.3 and 97.3 ng/kg bw per day (LB–UB). Overall, the main contributors to the dietary exposure to AME were ‘Vegetable oil’ and ‘Pome fruits’ (pears). The highest exposure to TeA was estimated in ‘Toddlers’ with mean exposure between 100 and 1,614 ng/kg bw per day (LB–UB), and in ‘Infants’ for the 95th percentile exposure estimations (98–3,603 ng/kg bw per day, LB–UB). ‘Cereal‐based food for infants and young children’ was the main contributor in ‘Infants’ and ‘Toddlers’, and tomatoes and tomato‐based products in other age classes. The highest exposure to TEN was estimated in ‘Toddlers’, with the mean exposure between 1.6 and 33.4 ng/kg bw per day (LB–UB), and the 95th percentile exposure around 55 ng/kg bw per day (UB) in different age classes. ‘Fruiting vegetables’ (tomatoes) were the major contributor to the dietary exposure to TEN. Although based on limited data, vegetarians seem to have higher dietary exposure to Alternaria toxins than the general population.

The Alternaria Mycotoxin Alternariol Triggers the Immune Response of IL‐1β‐stimulated, Differentiated Caco‐2 Cells

“…For instance, in a recent food survey AOH was measured in sunflower seed oil, wheat flour and tomato sauce at median concentrations of 1.2, 2.1, and 6.6 µg kg –1 , respectively . With regard to the estimated daily dietary intake of 1.0–15.2 ng kg –1 bw the observed inducing effects of AOH on IL‐8 transcription and secretion at concentrations of 0.02 and 0.2 µ m , respectively, need to be further investigated. These concentrations can be considered as physiologically relevant and immuno‐stimulating properties of AOH have not been described yet.…”

“…The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) estimated the daily dietary intake of AOH to be low (1.0–15.2 ng kg –1 bodyweight (bw)), but nevertheless to exceed presumably the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) of 2.5 ng kg –1 bw per day by far. A more detailed hazard characterization for AOH was, hence, demanded …”

The mycotoxin alternariol suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in THP-1 derived macrophages targeting the NF-κB signalling pathway

“…per day for adults by far exceeds the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) value for AOH (2.5 ng/kg b.w. per day) (EFSA 2011, 2016). Consequently, EFSA emphasized the necessity of additional data to characterise a potential hazard arising from AOH exposure (EFSA 2016).…”

“…per day) (EFSA 2011, 2016). Consequently, EFSA emphasized the necessity of additional data to characterise a potential hazard arising from AOH exposure (EFSA 2016). Moreover, recent studies reported AOH to exhibit immunosuppressive properties in vitro by modifying the expression of CD receptors and proinflammatory cytokines (Grover and Lawrence 2017; Solhaug et al 2016).…”

Understanding the effect of postharvest tomato temperatures on two toxigenic Alternaria spp. strains: growth, mycotoxins and cell‐wall integrity‐related gene expression

“…Even though there are still no international regulations for any of the Alternaria mycotoxins in food and feed, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recently highlighted that the major contribution of Alternaria spp. toxins to the diet is due to consumption of tomato and tomato‐based products …”