Diagrams and illustrations as aids to problem solving

Abstract

The psychological literature relating to factors which should be taken into account in the design of illustrations and pictorial instructions as aids to problem solving is reviewed. The problem solver can invoke a wide range of strategies for using pictorial materials to achieve his goal, although pictorial instructions which indicate how to perform actions place a tighter constraint on the choice of strategy than illustrations showing only states to be attained. The designer must make his graphics compatible with as wide a range of strategies for using them as possible while building on the knowledge the problem solver already possesses. "Problem Solving" is a term which has been used very freely to describe any cognitive activity for which the goal but not the means for obtaining it are initially specified. The problem solver has a more or less well defined set of operations which he can perform to change the problem situation, with the objective of eventually reaching a state which he recognises as a solution (Simon and Hayes, 1976). The choice of operations to be performed is likely to be governed by some kind of strategy, which may indicate desirable intermediate positions to be attained; what is done at each stage, however, will depend on the outcome of previous steps and the progress they have brought towards the intermediate or ultimate solution. Problem solving encompasses a wide range of activities, and the ways in which pictorial materials can help are equally varied. They can be used to answer specific questions arising during the course of problem solving activities, or provide specific items of information, as Barnard and Marcel (1978) observed, and they can influence the type of problem solving strategy adopted which will, in its turn, determine what specific information is sought (Szlichcinski, 1978). Indeed, when the instructions for performing a task are presented in pictorial form, understanding the instructions to perform the task becomes a complete problem solving activity in itself (Simon and Hayes, 1976), an interactive process in which the user makes a series of references to the instructions, the information sought depending on the outcome, successful or unsuccessful, of previous consultations.

Augmentation of information in educational objects: Effectiveness of arrows and pictures as information for actions in instructional objects

“…The fact that adding arrows to text-pictorial materials improved performances overall points to the notion that pictures carry relevant visual information concerning the object, including directions of actions, and movement (Agrawala et al, 2003;Hegarty, 1992;Horton, 1994;Krull & Sharp, 2006;Szlichcinski, 1979;Tversky et al, 2000). The results also suggest that augmenting this information provides further clarification of the meaning of the pictures and instructions (Kurata & Egenhofer, 2005), as well as highlights specific affordances of objects (Garnier, 2001;Heiser & Tversky, 2002;Tversky et al, 2000).…”

“…Participants' behaviours were the dependent variables for the study, A task analysis of the assembly and operating procedure was conducted by observing and recording the procedures performed by a technician on the design team and the designer. Instructions were developed from the task analysis and the aid of existing guidelines (Bieger & Glock, 1984-85;Booher, 1975;Braby, Kincaid, & McDaniel, 1982;Dixon, 1982;Hegarty, 1992;Hodgkinson & Hughes, 1982;Horton, 1994;Krull & Sharp, 2006;Kurata & Egenhofer, 2005;Nailen, 1981;Resnick, 1976;Stone & Glock, 1981;Szlichcinski, 1979;Tversky, et al, 2000). Six different instruction manuals were produced to coincide with the six experimental conditions in the study Appendix 1 shows an example of the text format in the first six pages of the manuals.…”

“…Similarly, Garnier's (2001) work confirmed that supporting pictures with text conveys sequential information in procedural instructions and improve its processing. Another set of studies illustrated that arrows can provide users with information that indicate movement of parts (Szlichcinski, 1979;Tversky et al, 2000) and actions (Krull & Sharp, 2006;Szlichcinski, 1979), including directions for actions (see Rasmussen, 1983) and final positions of components.…”

“…Previous discussions suggest that augmentation of pictorial information with arrows can provide readers with information that indicates movement (de Koning, et al, 2007;Hegarty, 1992;Horton, 1994;Krull & Sharp, 2006), movement of parts (Szlichcinski, 1979;Tversky et al, 2000) and actions (Krull & Sharp, 2006;Szlichcinski, 1979). Recent works also point to the idea that pictorial information that implies movement or action (Agrawala et al, 2003), direction of movement (Lowe & Pramono, 2006), or attunes readers to relevant information in instructions (i.e., cueing -de Koning et al, 2007) leads to better interpretation comprehension and cognitive performance of transfer task (de Koning et al, 2007;SchmidtWeigand & Scheiter, 2011).…”

“…Therefore, they can function as a cognitive aid for learning and instruction (Friedman & Stevenson, 1980;Hagen, 1980;Mayer 2005a;Watt, 1991). Numerous studies have explored the value of pictures in instruction as well as the information contained in them (e.g., Bieger & Glock, 1984-85;Booher, 1975;Houts, Doak, Doak, & Loscalzo, 2006;Szlichcinski, 1979). However, only a few have actually examined how pictorial information conveys functional information for actions.…”