Diagnosis of Keratoconus with Corneal Features Obtained through LBP, LDP, LOOP and CSO

Abstract

Keratoconus, by its name, is the condition of the eye wherein the cornea assumes a conical shape due to the thinning and protrusion of the cornea. Keratoconus, though bilateral, can be asymmetric in that it can progress differently in the eyes of the patient. Keratoconus can start from early adulthood and progress till the age of 40. Early detection of keratoconus is vital in preventing vision loss or costly repairs. The diagnostic tools available range from keratoscope to videokeratoscope but involves human efforts and thereby human errors. Automatic detection of keratoconus is required for large screening camps. With the advances in artificial intelligence techniques for medical diagnosis, new algorithms and techniques have been developed for the early and rapid screening of keratoconus, which aids clinicians in fast diagnosis. Artificial Neural Networks, Support Vector Machines, Radial Basis Function Neural Networks, Decision Trees, Computational Neural Networks, and various optimisation techniques have been used in different studies. The progression of keratoconus is identified by analyzing the shape of the cornea with Local Binary Pattern (LBP), Local Directional Pattern (LDP), Local Optimal Oriented Pattern (LOOP), and Cat Swarm Optimization (CSO) to detect the changes in cornea edges. The image processing with the CSO algorithm optimizes the result for the changes in the cornea and keratoconus detection. A new automated solution for detecting keratoconus is presented that employs texture analysis techniques such as LBP, LDP, LOOP, and CSO. The CSO extracts morphological and granular features from images of the cornea. The proposed method can be used to detect keratoconus by identifying the cornea shape change and improving clinical decisions. Further research can be in the way of grading the level of keratoconus. HIGHLIGHTS Extraction of corneal features for Diagnosis of Keratoconus from corneal topography images Feature vector extraction from corneal images using Local Binary Pattern, Local Direction Pattern and Local Optimal Oriented Pattern Optimisation using Cat Swarm Optimisation GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Keratoconus Diagnosis: From Fundamentals to Artificial Intelligence: A Systematic Narrative Review

“…In this review, we provide a state-of-the-art, all-encompassing assessment of the indices (combination variables in addition to the value of integrated instrument characteristics) and highlight the significant shortcomings that must be addressed before any machine learning strategy can be used more effectively in early KC detection. [17,20,[25][26][27][28][29]32,37,41,[47][48][49]56,75,86,91,95,118,119,[130][131][132][137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149].…”

“…Patients (p); Eyes (e); Group (g); KC group (KCG); control group (CG); Normal (Nl); Follow up (F/U); Keratoconus (KC); Clinical KC (CKC); Subclinical KC (SKC); Advanced KC (AKC); very asymmetric ectasia (VAE); Very Asymmetric Ectasia but with Normal Corneal Topography (VAE-NTG); Ocular Surface Disorders (OSD); Epithelial Basement Membrane Dystrophy (EBMD); Dry Eye Disease (DED); Keratitis Precipitate (KP), Subepithelial Opacity (SEO); Area Under the Curve (AUC); Area Under the Receiver Operator Characteristic Curve (AUROCC); Accuracy (AC); Sensitivity (Sen); Specificity (Spe); Recall (R); Purity (Pu); Belin–Ambrósio Deviation Index (BAD-D); Corneal Tomography Multivariate Index (CTMVI); Pentacam Topographical KC Classification (TKC); Tomographic–Biomechanical Parameter (TBI); Zernike Coefficients (ZC); Corneal Epithelial Thickness (ET); Deformation Amplitude (DA); Peak Distance (PD) at the Highest Concavity; Boosted Ectasia Susceptibility Tomography Index (BESTi); Multiple Logistic Regression Analysis (MLRA); Artificial intelligence (AI); Paraconsistent Feature Engineering (PFE); Support Vector Machine (SVM); Pentacam Random Forest index (PRFI); Artificial Neural Network (ANN); Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA); Random Forest (RF); Radial Basis Function NN (RBFNN); Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO); Fractional Order PSO (FPSO); Discrete PSO (DPSO); Linear Regression (LR); Time Delay Neural Network (TDNN); Convolutional NN (CNN); Feedforward Neural Network (FNN); Multilayer Perceptron (MLP); Local Binary Pattern (LBP); Local Directional Pattern (LDP); Local Optimal Oriented Pattern (LOOP); Cat Swarm Optimization (CSO); Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA); Principal Component Analysis (PCA); Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (QDA); Masked Face Analysis (MAFA); Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography (AS-OCT); Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK); Phototherapeutic Keratectomy (PTK); Penetrating Keratoplasty (PK); Lamellar Keratoplasty (LK); Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis (LASIK); Post-LASIK Ectasia (PLE). [ 17 , 20 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 32 , 37 , 41 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 56 , 75 , 86 , 91 , 95 , 118 , 119 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 137 , 138 , 139 ,…”