Deviations from the Expectable Environment in Early Childhood and Emerging Psychopathology

Abstract

Current frameworks for understanding the link between early adverse childhood experiences and later negative life outcomes, including psychopathology, focus on the mediating negative impact on brain and biological systems in the developing child resulting broadly from stress and trauma. Although this approach is useful, we argue that the framework could be functionally extended by distinguishing the effects of two different types of abnormal input, both deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood. Specifically, we review the consequences of inadequate input (eg, neglect/ deprivation) and harmful input (eg, abuse/trauma) on brain and biological development. We then review evidence on the differential links between each type of abnormal input to four selected domains of psychopathology (indiscriminate social behavior, posttraumatic stress disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and conduct problems), and consider potential mechanisms for inadequate and harmful input to lead to these outcomes. We conclude that the careful consideration of the type of deviation from the expected environment, while acknowledging the practical difficulties in assessing this, is likely to lead to clearer understanding of the mechanism of risk for psychopathology, and that tailored approaches to prevention and intervention may be informed by considering the unique consequences of inadequate and harmful input when experienced in early childhood.

The association between early life stress and prefrontal cortex activation during implicit emotion regulation is moderated by sex in early adolescence

“…First, although we used careful coding systems to evaluate the cumulative effects of objectively rated ELS severity on corticolimbic development, we use the term ELS broadly to include multiple forms of adverse childhood experiences, ranging from maltreatment and neglect to residential moves and exposure to marital disagreements. As we noted above, researchers have suggested that different forms of early adverse experiences have different psychobiological consequences (Humphreys & Zeanah, 2015; McLaughlin & Sheridan, 2016; Teicher & Samson, 2016; Teicher, Samson, Anderson, & Ohashi, 2016). Future research should examine the differential effects of types of stress exposure, including exposure to threat and neglect, on neural functioning.…”

Early adversity, hypocortisolism, and behavior problems at school entry: A study of internationally adopted children

“…Thus, to find that hypocortisolism served as a mediator of externalizing problems is consistent with previous work and might suggest that it is part of the neurobiological pathway to some aspects of externalizing behavior. ADHD symptoms are very commonly reported among children who have experienced deprivation early in life, particularly those reared in poor quality institutional settings (Humphreys & Zeanah, 2015). Nonetheless, there is little evidence that hypocortisolism is a part of the pathophysiology of ADHD.…”

Future Directions in Childhood Adversity and Youth Psychopathology

“…As I have argued elsewhere (McLaughlin, Sheridan, & Lambert, 2014; Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014), deviations from the expectable environment often take two primary forms: an absence of expected inputs (e. g., limited exposure to language or the absence of a primary caregiver), or the presence of unexpected inputs that represent significant threats to the physical integrity or well-being of the child (e.g., exposure to violence). A similar approach to classifying key forms of child adversity has been articulated by others as well (Farah et al, 2008; Humphreys & Zeanah, 2015). These experiences can either be chronic (e.g., prolonged neglect) or involve single events that are severe enough to represent a deviation from the expectable environment (e.g., sexual abuse).…”