Developments in the design and use of liquid-metal strain gages

Stone, J. E.; Madsen, Nels; Milton, J. L.; Swinson, W. F.; Turner, John E.

doi:10.1007/bf02320400

Cited by 18 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 5 publications

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“…Although interesting, the data cannot be quantitatively compared to our results. Stone et al also used mercury strain gauges, and applied them to in vivo and in vitro dogs as well as a cadaveric human (31). They subjected the in vivo and in vitro canine knee to flexion-extension, flexion-extension with anterior and posterior drawer, and flexion-extension with axial rotation, and measured strain in the ACL and PCL.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

“…Most previous studies have used human or canine cadavers, often with extensive dissection of the knee. The accuracy of such results in describing in vivo ligaments has been questioned (31,35). For this reason, we used live greyhound dogs.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

“…Many studies have found that internal rotation has resulted most notably in lengthening of the ACL (1,5,7,11,12,(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)22,23,27,31,33,36), but also of the other ligaments (5,12,(14)(15)(16)(17)22,33,34,36). In contrast, other studies have shown these same ligaments to lengthen minimally or to relax in response to internal rotation (7,17).…”

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confidence: 87%

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In vivo strain patterns in the four major canine knee ligaments

Monahan

Grigg

Pappas

et al. 1984

Journal Orthopaedic Research

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Using mercury gauges, we measured strains in vivo in the four major ligaments of the canine knee joint as the tibia was loaded in valgus or varus at fixed angles of knee flexion. Free axial rotation of the tibia on the femur was allowed. Forces up to 78.4 N were applied to the tibia, producing moments of approximately 9 N-m. We found that with valgus loading, significant strains were observed in the medial collateral ligament at extension. At 45 degrees of flexion, the medial collateral, posterior cruciate, and anterior cruciate were strained. At 90 degrees of flexion, all four ligaments were strained. With varus loading, significant strains were found in the lateral collateral and anterior cruciate at extension. The lateral collateral and anterior cruciate ligaments were strained at 45 degrees of flexion. At 90 degrees of flexion, the lateral collateral, anterior cruciate, and posterior cruciate ligaments were strained. With valgus loading, the tibia rotated internally and the degree of axial rotation increased with flexion. External rotation of the tibia resulted from varus loading, and was relatively constant through the range of flexion. Thus when axial rotation is allowed, stability of the knee in response to valgus and varus loads is maintained by the cruciates as well as the collaterals, and the role of the cruciates increases with flexion and axial rotation.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

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In vivo strain patterns in the four major canine knee ligaments

Monahan

Grigg

Pappas

et al. 1984

Journal Orthopaedic Research

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“…[49,50] Mercury-based strain sensors were investigated in the 1980s; [51][52][53][54][55] however,asan ontoxic alternative to mercury,EGaIn and Galinstan have recently been investigated. They include mercury,eutectic gallium-indium alloy (EGaIn),a nd gallium-indium-tin alloy (Galinstan).…”

Section: Liquid-metal-in-rubberstrain Sensorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…[53] The diameter andt he length of the channel is 0.38 mm and 2mm, respectively.I nalow strain region (e < 10 %), al inear relationship is observed with ag auge factor of 2. [53] The diameter andt he length of the channel is 0.38 mm and 2mm, respectively.I nalow strain region (e < 10 %), al inear relationship is observed with ag auge factor of 2.…”

Section: Liquid-metal-in-rubberstrain Sensorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Material Approaches to Stretchable Strain Sensors

et al. 2015

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With the recent progress made in wearable electronics, devices now require high flexibility and stretchability up to large strain levels (typically larger than 30 % strain). Wearable strain sensors or deformable strain sensors have been gaining increasing research interest because of the rapid development of electronic skins and robotics and because of their biomedical applications. Conventional brittle strain sensors made of metals and piezoresistors are not applicable for such stretchable sensors. This Review summarizes recent advances in stretchable sensors and focuses on material aspects for high stretchability and sensitivity. It begins with a brief introduction to the Wheatstone bridge circuit of conventional resistive strain sensors. Then, studies on the manipulation of materials are reviewed, including waved structural approaches for making metals and semiconductors stretchable, the use of liquid metals, and conductive filler/elastomer composites by using percolation among the fillers. For capacitive strain sensors, the constant conductivity of the electrode is a key factor in obtaining reliable sensors. Possible approaches to developing capacitive strain sensors are presented. This Review concludes with a discussion on the major challenges and perspectives related to stretchable strain sensors.

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Resistive Strain Measurement Devices

Tuttle

2013

Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering

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The measurement of strain is a fundamental necessity in many engineering disciplines and related industries. Methods of measurement can be roughly grouped into two major categories: those based on the behavior of light and those based on electronic devices. The present Chapter discusses strain within the framework of continuum mechanics. The study finds that strain is essentially a description of the deformations that have occurred at a point in a solid body. Many different factors have been noticed that may cause deformation. A normal strain corresponding to an increase in length is called a tensile strain and is algebraically positive. Conversely, a normal strain corresponding to a decrease in length is called a compressive strain and is algebraically negative. The description of the deformation that is the strain, can be rotated from one coordinate system to another using the strain transformation equations. All the practical implications have been discussed comprehensively. Nowadays, the most widely used strain measurement device is certainly the resistance metal strain gage and are based on a phenomenon known as the piezoresistive effect. Various perspectives for the techniques such as Wheatstone bridge and liquid metal strain gages have been discussed comprehensively.

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Developments in the design and use of liquid-metal strain gages

Cited by 18 publications

References 5 publications

In vivo strain patterns in the four major canine knee ligaments

In vivo strain patterns in the four major canine knee ligaments

Material Approaches to Stretchable Strain Sensors

Resistive Strain Measurement Devices

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