Development, spread and persistence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the soil microbiomes through co-selection

Abstract

Bacterial pathogens resistant to multiple antibiotics are emergent threat to the public health which may evolve in the environment due to the co-selection of antibiotic resistance, driven by poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and/or heavy metal contaminations. The co-selection of antibiotic resistance (AMR) evolves through the co-resistance or cross-resistance, or co-regulatory mechanisms, present in bacteria. The persistent toxic contaminants impose widespread pressure in both clinical and environmental setting, and may potentially cause the maintenance and spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In the past few years, due to exponential increase of AMR, numerous drugs are now no longer effective to treat infectious diseases, especially in cases of bacterial infections. In this mini-review, we have described the role of co-resistance and cross-resistance as main sources for co-selection of ARGs; while other co-regulatory mechanisms are also involved with cross-resistance that regulates multiple ARGs. However, co-factors also support selections, which results in development and evolution of ARGs in absence of antibiotic pressure. Efflux pumps present on the same mobile genetic elements, possibly due to the function of Class 1 integrons (Int1), may increase the presence of ARGs into the environment, which further is promptly changed as per environmental conditions. This review also signifies that mutation plays important role in the expansion of ARGs due to presence of diverse types of anthropogenic pollutants, which results in overexpression of efflux pump with higher bacterial fitness cost; and these situations result in acquisition of resistant genes. The future aspects of co-selection with involvement of systems biology, synthetic biology and gene network approaches have also been discussed.

Heavy metal-induced selection and proliferation of antibiotic resistance: A review

“…Since metals are ubiquitous, posing an enduring selection pressure on microbes, a positive correlation between the presence of metals and ARGs has been described in several environmental contexts, for example in agricultural soils, mining‐affected areas, aquaculture systems, swine and swine farms, in dairy farms and the gut microbiota of various other animals (Resende et al, 2012; Holman and Chénier, 2015; Zhou et al, 2016; Ding et al, 2019; Maurya et al, 2020; Zou et al, 2021). The use of metals, such as Zn and Cd, as therapeutics in animal feeds, instead of or as a supplement to antibiotics, was shown to co‐select and increase the prevalence of methicillin resistance in S. aureus .…”

Biochar can mitigate co-selection and control antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) in compost and soil

“…Co-selection is the associated selection and expression of two or more resistance genes by bacteria even when exposed to only a selective trigger or stressor ( Di Cesare et al., 2016 ). In addition to HMs ( Baker-Austin et al., 2006 ; Gorovtsov et al., 2018 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ), other contaminants have been postulated to affect ARGs in the environment such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) ( Gorovtsov et al., 2018 ), quaternary ammonium compounds ( Wales and Davies, 2015 ), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ( Gorovtsov et al., 2018 ), detergents ( Wales and Davies, 2015 ; Ye et al., 2017 ), and anti-biofouling agents (biocides) ( Wales and Davies, 2015 ; Ye et al., 2017 ). It is also postulated that ARB and ARGs may be higher in contaminated environmental media due to co-selection pressure ( Cunningham et al., 2020 ).…”

“…Co-resistance, co-regulation, and cross resistance have been reported as strategies for co-selection in bacteria ( Baker-Austin et al., 2006 ; Di Cesare et al., 2016 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ; Pal et al., 2017 ). In co-resistance, the genes coding for heavy metal resistance (HMR) and AR occurs together on the same MGEs like transposons, and plasmids.…”

“…Formation of biofilm can promote co-selection through co-existence and synergistic activities occurring in biofilm, which can lead to HGT of ARGs among bacterial species, hence conferring resistance and stability to the bacterial community ( Baker-Austin et al., 2006 ). MGEs and HGT play a significant role in the proliferation and maintenance of ARGs ( Di Cesare et al., 2016 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ). In addition, Class 1 integrons are also considered to play a major role in the propagation of ARGs in contaminated systems ( Gaze et al., 2011 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ).…”

“…MGEs and HGT play a significant role in the proliferation and maintenance of ARGs ( Di Cesare et al., 2016 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ). In addition, Class 1 integrons are also considered to play a major role in the propagation of ARGs in contaminated systems ( Gaze et al., 2011 ; Maurya et al., 2020 ). Figure 1 shows the stressors, conditions and co-selection mechanisms that leads to ARGs expression and AR in the environment.…”