Development and Psychometric Properties of the Test of Passive Aggression

Abstract

Background: To date, most research on aggression in mental disorders focused on active-aggressive behavior and found self-directed and other-directed active aggression to be a symptom and risk-factor of psychopathology. On the other hand, passive-aggressive behavior has been investigated less frequently and only in research on psychodynamic defense mechanisms, personality disorders, and dysfunctional self-control processes. This small number of studies primarily reflects a lack of a reliable and valid clinical assessment of passive-aggressive behavior. To address this gap, we developed the Test of Passive Aggression (TPA), a 24-item self-rating scale for the assessment of self-directed and other-directed passive-aggressive behavior.Method: Study 1 examined the internal consistency and factorial validity of the TPA in an inpatient sample (N = 307). Study 2 investigated the retest-reliability, internal consistency, and construct validity (active aggression, personality traits, impulsivity) of the TPA in a student sample (N = 180).Results: In line with our hypothesis, Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling revealed an acceptable to good fit of a bi-factorial structure of the TPA (Chi-square-df-ratio = 1.98; RMSR = 0.05, fit.off = 0.96). Both TPA scales showed good to excellent internal consistency (α = 0.83–0.90) and 4-week retest-reliability (rtt = 0.86). Correlations with well-established aggression scales, measures of personality, and impulsivity support discriminant and convergent validity of the TPA.Conclusions: The TPA is a reliable and valid instrument for the assessment of self-directed and other-directed passive-aggressive behavior.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Test of Passive Aggression in a Psychotherapy Outpatient Sample

“…While the evidence for the latter hypothesis was convincing, the association between other-directed passive aggression and external anger-expression was only weak. Thereby, contradicting previous results that demonstrated a medium to strong association between TPA-OD and active aggression measured with the K-FAF ( Schanz et al, 2021 ). However, it remains unclear if these diverging results may be accounted for by methodological differences, differences in sample characteristics, or differences in assessed aggression types.…”

“…Self-directed aggressive behavior is assumed to be closely related to self-conscious emotions (Laye-Gindhu and Schonert-Reichl, 2005) and self-criticism (Gilbert et al, 2010). In line with this assumption, Schanz et al (2021) found an association between TPA-SD and an auto-aggressive mindset in a student sample, which requires a replication in an outpatient sample.…”

“…Self-directed passive aggression harms oneself by omission of need satisfaction and disengagement in positive experiences in consequence of negative self-evaluations ( Schanz et al, 2021 ). Consequently, we assumed the TPA-SD scale to be negatively associated with measures of positive self-evaluation (i.e., self-esteem) and with measures assessing a kind and mindful way to deal with oneself (i.e., self-compassion) and to be associated positively with measures of negative self-evaluation (i.e., auto-aggressive mindset).…”

“…The TPA comprises two scales assessing self-directed (TPA-SD) and other-directed passive aggression (TPA-OD), with 12 items each. For English translations of all TPA items, see Schanz et al (2021) . TPA-SD exhibited good ( α =0.82) and TPA-OD acceptable ( α =0.78) internal consistency in the current sample.…”

“…However, previous research remained almost exclusively restricted to active aggression. The recently developed Test of Passive Aggression (TPA) is the first clinical assessment of self-directed (TPA-SD) and other-directed (TPA-OD) passive aggression ( Schanz et al, 2021 ). Convergent as well as discriminant validity, and retest-reliability of the TPA have been demonstrated in a student sample.…”