Determination of Pharmaceuticals, Heavy Metals, and Oxysterols in Fish Muscle

Abstract

The present study aimed to assess the levels of 98 multi-class pharmaceuticals including cardiovascular drugs, antidepressants, hypnotics, antibiotics, and sulfonamides occurring in the muscle tissue of fish caught in the Baltic Sea. The following fish species were collected: perch (Perca fluviatilis); flounder (Platichthys flesus); turbot (Scophthalmus maximus); plaice (Pleuronectes platessa); cod (Gadus morhua callarias); bream (Abramis brama); crucian (Carassius carassius). Additionally, in the examined fish muscle the levels of heavy metals and trace elements were determined (As; Ag; Au; Ba; Cd; Co; Cr; Cu; Hg; Li; Mo; Ni; Pb; Sb; Se; Sn; Tl; V) as well as the levels of cholesterol and its 5 derivatives (7-ketocholesterol; 7α-hydroxycholesterol; 7β-hydroxycholesterol; 5β,6β-epoxy-cholesterol; 5α,6α-epoxycholesterol). In the performed studies 11 out of 98 examined pharmaceuticals were detected in fish muscle. The levels of pharmaceuticals in fish muscle varied depending on the species. In the tissues of bream and crucian, no pharmaceuticals were found. Mercury, lead and arsenic were detected in the muscles of all examined fish. Based on the hazard factor for Hg, Pb, Cd, Ni (target hazard quotient, THQ < 1), it was found that the consumption of the studied fish does not constitute a health risk. However, the THQ for As remained >1 indicated possible risk from those metals. In the examined fish muscle the total cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) level of oxysterols were, respectively: 6.90 (cod) μg/g–4.18 μg/g (perch), which corresponded to 0.7–1.5% of cholesterol. The main COPs evaluated were 7-ketocholesterol (0.78 ± 0.14–1.79 ± 0.06 μg/g), 7β-hydroxycholesterol (0.50 ± 0.04–3.20 ± 2.95 μg/g) and 5β,6β-epoxycholesterol (0.66 ± 0.03–1.53 ± 0.66 μg/g). The assessment of health hazards due to contaminations is necessary, which may help to introduce national legislation and global standards aimed at reducing or even eliminating the exposure to contaminants.

Assessment of Fish Quality Based on the Content of Heavy Metals

“…On this basis, it was concluded that the levels of Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn in the studied fish species were lower than the maximum levels ( Table 1 ). Bobrowska-Korczak et al [ 52 ] found a that health risk assessment due to contamination is necessary; therefore, monitoring plays a vital role in food safety, which can help introduce national legislation and global standards aimed at reducing or even eliminating exposure to contaminants.…”

“…Budjono and Hasbi [ 64 ] studied six important commercial fish species, including Oreochromis niloticus , and found that the muscles of all fish meet the limits of Zn for human consumption. According to Bobrowska-Korczak et al [ 52 ], crucian carp contained more Cu than perch and flounder (crucian carp ≈ perch > flounder), although there were no statistically significant differences between crucian carp and perch. This was not in accordance with the authors’ studies ( Table 1 ).…”

Total Mercury and Fatty Acids in Selected Fish Species on the Polish Market: A Risk to Human Health

“…Pokorska et al [ 52 ] observed that differences in bioaccumulation between fish species are related to their affinity for metal uptake from the aquatic environment, as well as their place in the trophic chain. The content of mercury in muscles of fish from the Baltic Sea (Poland) decreased as follows: crucian carp (0.00655 mg/kg) > flounder (0.00393 mg/kg) ( p < 0.05) [ 53 ]. In our studies, interspecific differences between the content of mercury in the muscle tissue of the same fish were not found ( Table 1 ).…”

Oxysterols: From redox bench to industry

“…To quote a few, oxysterol presence in meat has been quantified in pork, beef, chicken, veal, ham, turkey and sausage [ 112 , 123 ]. Similarly, in fish, oxysterols have been reported in shrimp, salmon, squid, mackerel, flounder, turbot, plaice, bream, crucian, anchovy, cod whiting, saury, herring, and perc [ 123 , 124 ]. The analyzed oxysterols include 7αOHC, 7βOHC, 7KC, α-epoxy, β-epoxy, 25OHC, and triol ( Table 3 ).…”