Determinants of Maternal Sex Steroids During the First Half of Pregnancy

Abstract

Objective To examine the associations of maternal and child characteristics with early pregnancy maternal concentrations of testosterone, androstenedione, progesterone, 17-hydroxyprogesterone and estradiol. Methods We analyzed these hormones among 1,343 women with singleton pregnancies who donated serum samples to the Finnish Maternity Cohort from 1986 to 2006 during the first half of pregnancy (median, 11 weeks). The associations of maternal and child characteristics with hormone concentrations were investigated by correlation and multivariable regression. Results Women above age 30 had lower androgen and estradiol but higher progesterone concentrations than women below that age. Multiparous women had 14% lower testosterone, 11% lower androstenedione and 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 9% lower progesterone, and 16% lower estradiol concentrations compared to nulliparous women (all P<.05). Smoking mothers had 11%, 18%, and 8% higher testosterone, androstenedione, and 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels, respectively, but 10% lower progesterone compared to non-smoking women (all P<.05). Estradiol concentrations were 9% higher (P<0.05) among women with a female fetus compared to those with a male fetus. Conclusions Parity, smoking, and to a lesser extent maternal age and child gender are associated with sex steroid levels during the first half of a singleton pregnancy. The effects of smoking on the maternal hormonal environment and the possible long-term deleterious consequences on the fetus deserve further evaluation.

The Effect of Sibling's Gender on Earnings, Education and Family Formation

“…He interpreted this as a sign that T can transfer, at least from the fetus to the mother. However, several other studies failed to find a difference in maternal T levels by the sex of the fetus (Glass and Klein, 1981;Rodeck et al, 1985;van de Beek et al, 2004;Cohen-Bendahan et al, 2005b;Toriola et al, 2011). In fact, studies that measured T in both amniotic fluid and maternal serum found no correlation between the two measures (Rodeck et al, 1985;van de Beek et al, 2004).…”

Maternal Parity, Fetal and Childhood Growth, and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors

“…[38][39][40][41] Furthermore, differences in maternal metabolic and hormonal environment between nulliparous and multiparous women may influence fetoplacental development. [41][42][43] Impaired fetal growth, followed by infant catch-up growth, may influence risks of adiposity and adverse cardiometabolic outcomes in later life. 7,44 Animal studies also suggested an increase in fat mass and alterations in endocrine sensitivity in adipose tissue in firstborn offspring, which may also be important risk factors for obesity and related disorders in later life.…”

Smoking, 17 Alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone Caproate, and Preterm Birth

“…Smoking is known to impact the metabolism of multiple sex steroids. In a study by Toriola et al, 16 for example, smoking was noted to reduce levels of progesterone while actually increasing levels of 17 α-hydroxyprogesterone. It is possible that smokers treated with 17OHP-C may thus be both relatively progesterone deficient and have relatively augmented levels of 17OHP-C.…”

“…Smoking has been reported to alter the metabolism of progestogens, possibly rendering pregnant smokers relatively progestogen deficient. 16 17OHP-C is postulated to achieve its benefits via anti-inflammatory mechanisms, 17,18 and one pathway by which smoking is thought to increase PTB is via inflammation. 8 Manuck et al have published pharmacogenomic data suggesting that 17OHP-C effectiveness may be linked to nitric oxide metabolism, 9 which is adversely impacted by smoking.…”