Detection of soybean oil adulteration in cow ghee (clarified milk fat): an ultrafast study using flash gas chromatography electronic nose coupled with multivariate chemometrics

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Cow ghee is one of the expensive edible fats in the dairy sector. Ghee is often adulterated with low-priced edible oils, like soybean oil, owing to its high market demand. The existing adulteration detection methods are time-consuming, requiring sample preparation and expertise in these fields. The possibility of detecting soybean oil adulteration (from 10% to 100%) in pure cow ghee was investigated in this study. The fingerprint information of volatile compounds was collected using a flash gas chromatography electronic nose (FGCEN) instrument. The classification results were studied using the pattern recognition chemometric models principal component analysis (PCA), soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA), and discriminant function analysis (DFA).RESULTS: The most powerful fingerprint odor of all the samples identified from FGCEN analysis was acetaldehyde (Z)-4-heptenal, 2-propanol, ethyl propanoate, and pentan-2-one. The odor analysis investigation was accomplished with an average analysis time of 90 s. A clear differentiation of all the samples with an excellent classification accuracy of more than 99% was achieved with the PCA and DFA chemometric methods. However, the results of the SIMCA model showed that SIMCA could only be used to detect ghee adulteration at higher concentration levels (30% to 100%). The validation study shows good agreement between FGCEN and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry methods.CONCLUSION: The methodology demonstrated coupled with PCA and DFA methods for adulteration detection in ghee using FGCEN apparatus has been an efficient and convenient technique. This study explored the capability of the FGCEN instrument to tackle the adulteration problems in ghee.

How Chemometrics Can Fight Milk Adulteration

“…HCA aided to picture the correlation between the sample and each variable as HCA heatmaps were created. In addition, geographical origin was the target of Amenzou et al [47], who studied the 13 C/ 12 C, 15 N/ 14 N, 18 O/ 16 O. The application of HCA was very important to visualize the samples in 3 important clusters.…”

“…Another form of adulteration is the replacement of milk fat with vegetable fats of lower economic value [14]. Among others, soybean oil has been mentioned in the adulteration of milk [15]. In addition, the recent EU regulations for foods designated as PDO (protected designation of origin), PGI (protected geographical indication), and TSG (traditional specialty guaranteed) require the inclusion on the label of the geographical origin of food.…”

Characterizing Edible Oils by Oblique-Incidence Reflectivity Difference Combined with Machine Learning Algorithms

“…There are several procedures for researching edible oil in the field of food safety, such as flash gas chromatography [9][10][11], TaqMan real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction [12], gas chromatography ion mobility spectrometry [13,14], electrochemical impedance spectroscopy [15], non-destructive ultrasonic method [16], and the use of chemometric tools [17]. Combined with chemometrics, flash gas chromatography had been used to assess volatile profiles of berry seed oils for authenticity and deterioration.…”

Characterizing Edible Oils by Oblique-Incidence Reflectivity Difference Combined with Machine Learning Algorithms

“…There are several procedures to research the edible oil in food safety field, such as flash gas chromatography [1][2][3], TaqMan real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction [4], gas chromatography ion mobility spectrometry [5,6] and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy [7]. Combined with chemometrics, flash gas chromatography had been used to assess volatile profiles of berry seed oils in terms of the authenticity and the deterioration assessment.…”