Detection of Eight Cannabinoids and One Tracer in Wastewater and River Water by SPE-UPLC–ESI-MS/MS

Abstract

The consumption of illicit drugs represents a global social and economic problem. Using suitable analytical methods, monitoring, and detection of different illegal drugs residues and their metabolites in wastewater samples can help combat this problem. Our article defines a method to develop, validate, and practically applicate a rapid and robust analytical process for the evaluation of six naturally occurring cannabinoids (CBG, CBD, CBDV, CBN, THC, THCV), two cannabinoids in acidic form (CBDA, THCA-A), and the major cannabis-related human metabolite (THC-COOH). After SPE offline enrichment, we used a UPLC–ESI-MS/MS system, which permitted the determination of several by-products. Studied matrices were samples of different origins: (i) effluent water from a wastewater treatment plant in the Porto urban area; (ii) environmental water from Febros River, the last left-bank tributary of the Douro River. The multi-residue approach was substantiated and successfully employed to analyze the water samples collected in the above locations. The rapid and precise quantification of nine different cannabinoids in different water samples occurred within nine minutes at the ng L−1 level. The appearance of dozens of ng L−1 of some cannabis secondary metabolites, such as CBD, CBDA, CBN, THCA-A, indicates this plant species’ widespread usage among the general population in the considered area.

Investigating the Sublethal Effects of Cannabis sativa on Earthworms and Trematode Cercariae

“…In addition, Boleda et al (2009) found concentrations ranging from 11.3-127 ng/L THC and 23.5-402 ng/L THC-COOH in the influent, and 20.5 ng/L THC and 14.8-71.7 ng/L THC-COOH in the effluent of wastewater treatment plants in Catalonia, Spain.Although there is currently no data regarding CBD concentrations in wastewater, I predicted that it may closely follow that of THC because of its similar structure, availability and frequency of use. For instance,Milan et al (2016) found similar levels of THCA and CBDA (73 and 79 ng/L, respectively) in wastewater from Porto, Portugal. However, they did not find measurable amounts of THC, CBD, or THC-COOH.…”

“…Notably, CBD and its metabolites have not been detected in any water; however, there have been limited sampling efforts. One study also attempted and failed to find measurable amounts of CBD in wastewater from the USA (Asimakopoulos et al 2017), while another detected the acid forms of CBD and THC (CBDA and THCA, respectively) in wastewater from Portugal (Milan et al 2016). Currently, it is unknown how aqueous cannabinoids may impact most aquatic organisms at the lethal or sublethal level, especially at estimated levels of exposure.…”

Direct-Injection UHPLC-MS/MS Method for Simultaneous Determination of 78 Illegal Drugs and Psychoactive Substances in Domestic Wastewater

“…It has been widely reported in the literature that the concentration of these two classes of substances in environmental water and sewage samples ranges from ng/L to µg/L [15][16][17]. In order to meet this detection requirement, most methods adopt offline solid phase extraction (Offline-SPE) as the pre-treatment and concentration technology of sewage [18][19][20]. The process mainly includes pre-filtration, pH adjustment, solid phase extraction, elution, concentration, and re-dissolution.…”

Preparation of amphiphilic poly(divinylbenzene-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone)-functionalized polydopamine magnetic nanoadsorbents for enrichment of synthetic cannabinoids in wastewater

“…Sample pre-treatment is a crucial step implemented before chromatographic analysis to extract target analytes from the complex matrix of the sample, minimize interference from matrix components, and enhance the sensitivity of the analytical method. 16,32 Commonly used pretreatment techniques include solid-phase extraction (SPE), 16,[33][34][35] liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), 16,36 liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) 37,38 and solid-phase microextraction (SPME) 27,28,39 for WBE analysis. For example, Wang et al employed an SPE-GC-MS method for the detection of methamphetamine in wastewater in Dalian from 2015 to 2018.…”