Detection of Cocaine and its Metabolites in Amniotic Fluid and Umbilical Cord Tissue

Abstract

The increased use of cocaine by women of child-bearing age has left many health care scientists searching for improved methods of detecting prenatal cocaine exposure. To that end, a study of the determination of cocaine and its metabolites in amniotic fluid and umbilical cord tissue was undertaken. Amniotic fluid (n = 32) and umbilical cord tissue (n = 70) specimens were collected from pregnant subjects admitted to labor and delivery at Shands Hospital at the University of Florida (Gainesville, FL). Subjects were interviewed regarding drug use during each trimester. Subjects reporting cocaine use were designated as target subjects, and those denying use were control subjects. The specimens were subjected to solid-phase extraction and analyzed for cocaine and its metabolites by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cocaine analytes (predominantly benzoylecgonine) were detected in 28.1 and 18.5% of the amniotic fluid and umbilical cord tissue specimens, respectively. Other cocaine analytes frequently detected included ecgonine methyl ester and m-hydroxy-benzoylecgonine in amniotic fluid specimens and ecgonine methyl ester, norcocaine, and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine in umbilical cord tissue specimens. This study has shown that cocaine and its metabolites are readily detected in specimens of maternal and fetal origin.

Perinatal characteristics and risk of neuroblastoma

“…However, because only a small percentage of cases had reported maternal drug-use and the specific drugs that were used were unique to each case, we cannot conclude with any certainty whether this finding has a biological basis or is due to chance. It is nevertheless interesting to note that the drugs reported in our study by case mothers are known to cross the placenta, [28][29][30] that NB cells express the serotonin receptor, 5-HT 3 31 that can bind fluoxetine and cocaine, 32,33 and that maternally derived serotonin has been shown to regulate gene expression, proliferation, migration and morphogenesis of neural crest cells, from which NB derives, in mouse embryos. 34 Whether drugs, particularly those that act in the serotonin pathway, can influence malignant transformation of neural cells has not been examined.…”

Simultaneous quantification of buprenorphine, norbuprenorphine, buprenorphine-glucuronide and norbuprenorphine-glucuronide in human umbilical cord by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

“…In the literature, only cocaine and metabolites’ concentrations in umbilical cord has been published. Moore et al [44] reported one case with a concentration of 1200 ng/g for benzoylecgonine in umbilical cord, and Winicker et al [46] 13 specimens where the main metabolite was benzoylecgonine (up to 1237 ng/mL) followed by ecgonine methyl ester (up to 52ng/mL). Keeping in mind these data, it is possible that compounds are concentrated in meconium or umbilical cord according to physicochemical properties (less lipophilic umbilical cord, more lipophilic meconium).…”

“…The concentrations were measured by a meconium method [11, 45], or validation data were not supplied for the umbilical cord matrix [44]. Only Winecker et al [46] developed a cocaine quantification method in umbilical cord specimens. In order to obtain reliable data, the analytical method employed has to be fully validated in a given biological matrix.…”

Measurement of pesticides and other toxicants in amniotic fluid as a potential biomarker of prenatal exposure: a validation study.

“…Studies of organochlorine compounds [including dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)], therapeutic and illegal drugs, first-hand and environmental tobacco smoke, dust mite allergens, and metals indicate that toxicants are detectable in amniotic fluid and are likely to reflect fetal exposures (Carvalho et al 2001;Foster et al 2000;Holloway et al 2000;Jauniaux et al 1999;Kim et al 1998;O'Leary et al 1970;Polishuk et al 1977;Talbot et al 1988;Winecker et al 1997). To date, no studies have investigated levels of common nonpersistent pesticides in amniotic fluid.…”