Destinations of Male Outmigration and their Drivers in Indian Sundarbans

Abstract

Economic liberalisation has created opportunities for semi-skilled labours within and outside India. This study investigates the male out-migration from the Sundarbans region of India with special reference to the choice of their destinations. Following a mixed-method approach, we collected data through a questionnaire survey, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, key-informant interviews, and Participatory Rural Appraisal. Analyses revealed that migrants tended to travel to diverse inland and even to overseas destinations on a fixed condition, facilitated by pre-existing support networks. The decision on choosing a destination is regulated by several micro-level determinants such as migration chronology, education, and acquired skill, life cycle stage of the migrants, the expected amount of remittance, the reason for migration, and nature of the job at the destination. The destinations abroad are often preceded by migration to inland destinations leading to higher acquired skill and savings. Joint families, having the ability to support international travel and access to support networks, were more prone to reach international destinations.

Multi-faceted impact and outcome of COVID-19 on smallholder agricultural systems: Integrating qualitative research and fuzzy cognitive mapping to explore resilient strategies

“…Return of male family members might also adversely affect the decision-making power of women ( Saha et al, 2018 ). At the regional level, the thwarted flow of remittance would affect local non-farm economy due to the lower purchasing capacity of the villagers and ability of farmers to build assets in agriculture ( Kharel et al, 2020 ; Saha and Goswami, 2020 ). Also, the death of a large number of trees during the Amphan will affect the farm families indirectly, especially in villages where dependence on non-timber forest product was high ( Singh et al, 2010 ), or trees on their farms and homesteads played critical roles in the farming system.…”

“…Political favouritism exacerbates the targeting of social security schemes against resource-poor farm households. This nexus of biophysical and infrastructural stresses, along with limited local employment opportunities, have historically plagued agriculture and rural livelihoods in these areas and triggered recursive male outmigration ( Saha and Goswami, 2020 ). Natural disasters often cause inflexion in the trajectory of agricultural and livelihood systems ( Misra et al, 2017 ), causing a sudden exodus of male family members towards big cities.…”

Does Romanian Emigration Influence Labour Force?

“…In general, migration can have positive or negative effects on the development of an economy (Nyberg-Sørensen et al, 2002), but with direct effects on the development and living standards of people who decide to emigrate and their families (Murrugarra et al, 2011;Siddiqui, 2012). The literature has focused mainly on the impact of emigration in destination countries and the well-being of the family left in the country of origin, analyzed through remittances (R Römhild, 2017, Saha et al, 2018;Mehedintu et al, 2020;Saha and Goswami, 2020), and less on the impact of emigration on the labor force or on the social conditions in the country of emigration. A person's decision to emigrate is generally influenced by a combination of social, economic, or political factors that come from either the country of immigration or the country of emigration.…”

Qualitative Evaluation of Cropping System Intensification in Coastal Saline Zone of West Bengal, India

“…Here, rice is the only crop grown in the rainy season (Kharif), rainwater being the only source of irrigation, and there is hardly any winter or summer crop grown due to constrained irrigation. Non-remunerative agriculture often leads to labour migration from the villages (Saha and Goswami, 2020). Many of the male residents of the villages of CSZ go outside for months, or even for years to earn money to sustain the livelihood of their families.…”