Conspectus
The piling up of low-energy
photons to produce light beams of higher
energies while exploiting the nonlinear optical response of matter
was conceived theoretically around 1930 and demonstrated 30 years
later with the help of the first coherent ruby lasers. The vanishingly
small efficacy of the associated light-upconversion process was rapidly
overcome by the implementation of powerful successive absorptions
of two photons using linear optics in materials that possess real
intermediate excited states working as relays. In these systems, the
key point requires a favorable competition between the rate constant
of the excited-state absorption (ESA) and the relaxation rate of the
intermediate excited state, the lifetime of which should be thus maximized.
Chemists and physicists therefore selected long-lived intermediate
excited states found (i) in trivalent lanthanide cations doped into
ionic solids or into nanoparticles (2S+1
L
J
spectroscopic levels)
or (ii) in polyaromatic molecules (triplet states) as the logical
activators for designing light upconverters using linear optics. Their
global efficiency has been stepwise optimized during the past five
decades by using indirect intermolecular sensitization mechanisms
(energy transfer upconversion = ETU) combined with large absorption
cross sections.
The induction of light-upconversion operating
in a single discrete
entity at the molecular level is limited to metal-based units and
remained a challenge for a long time because coordination complexes
possess high-frequency oscillators incompatible with the existence
of (i) scales of accessible excited relays with long lifetimes and
(ii) final high-energy emissive levels with noticeable intrinsic quantum
yields. In contrast to intermolecular energy transfer processes operating
in metal-based doped solids, which require statistical models, the
combination of sensitizers and activators within the same molecule
limits energy transfers to easily tunable intramolecular processes
with first-order kinetic rate constants. Their successful programming
in a trinuclear CrErCr complex in 2011 led to the first detectable
near-infrared to green light upconversion induced in a molecular unit
under reasonable excitation intensity. The subsequent progress in
the modeling and understanding of the key factors controlling metal-based
light upconversion operating in molecular complexes led to a burst
of various designs exploiting different mechanisms, excited-state
absorption (ESA), energy transfer upconversion (ETU), cooperative
luminescence (CL), and cooperative upconversion (CU), which are discussed
in this Account.