Design Moderators of Perceived Residential Crowding and Chronic Physiological Stress Among Children

Abstract

Chronic crowding within housing adversely affects psychological well-being, yet little is known about how design attributes contribute to these effects, especially among children. This cross-sectional study first examined associations between residential interior density and children’s ( M = 9 years of age) perceived bedroom and home crowding. Second, analyses investigated whether interior design attributes (residential floor plan arrangement measured by space syntax [depth and permeability]; bedroom ceiling height, volume, and window area) buffer negative effects of perceived crowding on multimethodological indices of child development, including psychological distress, learned helplessness, and physiological stress. After adjusting for home type, clutter, income, gender, and age, interior density was significantly associated with perceived home and bedroom crowding. Regression results suggested that bedroom ceiling height was associated with reduced negative effects of home, but not bedroom, perceived crowding on blood pressure, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and allostatic load among participants who reported higher levels of perceived crowding.

Permanent Supportive Housing Design Characteristics Associated with the Mental Health of Formerly Homeless Adults in the U.S. and Canada: An Integrative Review

“… [ 102 ] Crowding The psychological response to high density based on perceptions of spatial restriction due to too little space (spatial density) or too many people present in a space (social density). [ 114 ] Meaning The extent to which an environment holds individual or collective significance for people (e.g., attachment, challenge, beauty). [ 68 ] …”

Time-Dependent Effects of Exposure to Nature and Perceived Behavioral Control over Social Distancing in Shared Open Spaces on Psychological Distress of Residents during Pandemic of COVID-19

“…Chronic crowding, according to research, is a major source of stress and has a negative impact on mental health. Reduced feelings of control, particularly over desired social interaction (Altman, 1975); overstimulation (Evans, 1979); interference with socially supportive relationships among home residents leading to social withdrawal (Rollings & Evans, 2019); and adverse health outcomes such as psychological distress and anxiety (Evans, 2003;Cavazza et al, 2021) are among the psychosocial processes that result from perceived crowding. Evans and Lepore (1993) proposed three mechanisms through which the negative effects of household crowding could lead to negative consequences: reduced access to valuable resources, increased social competition, and interfering with goal attainment; lack of perceived control over, and predictability of, the environment; and enforcing excessive stimulation, causing overload and unpleasant over-arousal.…”

“…Perceived interior crowding: Participants rated their level of agreement with ve statements on a 5-point Likerttype scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree) to express their opinions of the adequacy of home space and perceived interior crowding: "Despite the mandatory stay-at-home order, the size of my home is insu cient to ensure my personal space"; "I have a space at home where I can be alone away from others" (inverse-scored); "Verbal and, or physical violent behaviors have increased at home during the current mandatory lockdown" (Pakenham et al, 2020); "I feel squished or cramped at home" (Rollings & Evans, 2019).…”

Healthy Places

“…The environment may impact stress either directly or indirectly. Direct effects stem from factors such as crowding (Rollings & Evans, 2019), air quality (Thomson, 2019), and noise (Evans, 2006) while factors such as social support (Evans & Lepore, 1993) and personal control (Evans & McCoy, 1998) have indirect effects. Much environmental stress research has at its roots the work of Selye (1956) whose profound aspects include: 1) the assumption that there is only a finite level of adaptive energy one has to respond to stress; and 2) that there is an "adaptive-cost" the body and psyche have in responding to stress.…”