Design and Encapsulation of Immunomodulators onto Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy

Abstract

The aim of cancer immunotherapy is to reactivate autoimmune responses to combat cancer cells. To stimulate the immune system, immunomodulators, such as adjuvants, cytokines, vaccines, and checkpoint inhibitors, are extensively designed and studied. Immunomodulators have several drawbacks, such as drug instability, limited half-life, rapid drug clearance, and uncontrolled immune responses when used directly in cancer immunotherapy. Several strategies have been used to overcome these limitations. A simple and effective approach is the loading of immunomodulators onto gold-based nanoparticles (GNPs). As gold is highly biocompatible, GNPs can be administered intravenously, which aids in increasing cancer cell permeability and retention time. Various gold nanoplatforms, including nanospheres, nanoshells, nanorods, nanocages, and nanostars have been effectively used in cancer immunotherapy. Gold nanostars (GNS) are one of the most promising GNP platforms because of their unusual star-shaped geometry, which significantly increases light absorption and provides high photon-to-heat conversion efficiency due to the plasmonic effect. As a result, GNPs are a useful vehicle for delivering antigens and adjuvants that support the immune system in killing tumor cells by facilitating or activating cytotoxic T lymphocytes. This review represents recent progress in encapsulating immunomodulators into GNPs for utility in a cancer immunotherapeutic regimen.

Effects of morphology and size of nanoscale drug carriers on cellular uptake and internalization process: a review

“…Compared to their linear counterparts, star polymers show enhanced drug loading content (DLC), drug loading efficiency (DLE), and longer circulation time. [104][105][106] As computational studies reveal, a simulated drug delivery system for water-soluble drugs with droplets containing nanoparticle liquid crystals in different shapes has demonstrated that drugs are concentrated in the core of star-shaped NPs (red color). In contrast, the ve star arms (blue color) do not carry drugs.…”

Enhancing Skin Cancer Immunotheranostics and Precision Medicine through Functionalized Nanomodulators and Nanosensors: Recent Development and Prospects

“…As excellent biocompatible materials, GNPs are efficient antigen and adjuvant delivery vehicles for inducing a cytotoxic T-cell response, can artificially present antigens, and can be functionalized to provide co-stimulation. GNP can bind with human DC to help activate cytokine production [ 97 ]. GNP demonstrates a high plasmonic effect, reduced cytotoxicity, and ability of diverse functionalization [ 98 , 99 ].…”

Ruthenium-based antitumor drugs and delivery systems from monotherapy to combination therapy

“…Immunotherapy for cancer refers to the treatment of cancer by activating the body's immune system with drugs to attack tumor cells through the body's natural immunity 294,295 receptor T cells), excitatory antibody receptors for costimulation, cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and bisspecific antibodies 296,297 . Nanoparticles are often used to specifically deliver antigens, adjuvants, and therapeutic agents 298,299 . Nanoparticles themselves can also regulate immune microenvironment of tumors [300][301][302][303] .…”

“…296,297 Nanoparticles are often used to specifically deliver antigens, adjuvants, and therapeutic agents. 298,299 Nanoparticles themselves can also regulate the immune microenvironment of tumors. 300–303…”