Depressive symptoms, social support, and violence exposure among urban youth: A longitudinal study of resilience.

Abstract

Depression is a serious mental health concern among adolescents. Violence exposure is a potent risk factor for depression. Social support may help reduce depression risk, even when adolescents are exposed to violence. Using a compensatory model of resilience, we investigate the influence of violence exposure and social support on depression over time in a sample of urban youth during the high school years (N=824, 52% female, mean age year 1 = 14.9). We used growth curve modeling to examine depressive symptoms across adolescence and its association with violence exposure and social support, accounting for important sociodemographic characteristics (sex, socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity). Depressive symptoms on average increase from year one to two of high school and then are stable or decline from years two to four. Violence observation and conflict in the family were each associated with increased depressive symptoms during the high school years. Mother support was associated with decreased depressive symptoms over time. Our results support a compensatory model of resilience. Promoting positive parent-child communication among urban youth living in disadvantaged contexts may help reduce the probability that exposure to violence will result in depressive symptoms.

Violence Exposure and Sexual Risk Behaviors for African American Adolescent Girls: The Protective Role of Natural Mentorship and Organizational Religious Involvement

“…First, although we found a significant association between violence exposure and sexual risk behaviors, our measure of violence was limited to physical violence. Scholars have suggested that other forms of violence, such as sexual violence, may increase the odds of sexual risk behaviors (e.g., Eisman, Stoddard, Heinze, Caldwell, & Zimmerman, ). Thus, it would be useful to assess how different forms of violence may influence sexual risk behaviors (Ozer, Lavi, Douglas, & Wolf, ).…”

Association between resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder among Brazilian victims of urban violence: a cross-sectional case-control study

“…[7][8][9] Improving these psychosocial factors may therefore help ameliorate the negative effects of violence on mental health. 10 Regarding the multifactorial nature of resilience, an individual's characteristic style of defense mechanism, parental bonding, and childhood trauma could be [11][12][13] The absence of early life stress can be considered a protective factor in the context of urban violence, [14][15][16] but sexual abuse in childhood is associated with a higher risk of developing PTSD in adult life. [17][18][19] Another possible early life stress is a dysfunctional parental bond.…”

Protective factors for depressive symptoms in adolescents: Interpersonal relationships and perceived social support

“…For example, a 2‐year longitudinal study showed that perceived social support was an important predictor of depressive symptoms in adolescence (Stice, Ragan, & Randall, ). More specifically, perceived social support from parents, classmates, and especially close friendships were inversely correlated with the level of depressive symptoms (Eisman, Stoddard, Heinze, Caldwell, & Zimmerman, ; Rudasill, Pössel, Winkeljohn Black, & Niehaus, ). It implied that enhanced social support might alleviate depressive symptoms.…”