Depressive Symptoms Among Delinquent Youth: Testing Models of Association with Stress and Support

Abstract

The high prevalence of depression among incarcerated youth indicates a need to better understand factors that contribute to depression within this vulnerable subgroup. Previous research in general community samples has suggested that high levels of stress and low levels of parental support are associated with depression in young people, but it is unclear whether or how they might be associated with depression among incarcerated youth who are already vulnerable. Using a sample of 228 adolescents (aged 13-18 years) who were detained in the juvenile justice system, stress and support were modeled as independent main effects and as interactive risk factors in relation to depressive symptoms. More stressful life events and less caregiver support were each independently associated with depressive symptoms, but no evidence was found for the buffering hypothesis in this sample. Stressful life events were more strongly associated with depressive symptoms among boys compared to girls. Keywords depression; stress; support; incarcerated youth Because of the compelling disruptive behavior exhibited by youth involved in the juvenile justice system, depression is often overlooked, despite being a significant problem in this group. As many as 47% of youth in juvenile detention are affected by moderate-to-severe levels of depressive symptoms (Domalanta, Risser, Roberts, & Risser, 2003), with rates of affective disorder as high as 28-48% (Pliszka, Sherman, Barrow, & Irick, 2000;Teplin, Abram, McClelland, Dulcan, & Mericle, 2002). Unrecognized and untreated depression potentially impacts the criminal course of youth, as depression has been shown to be associated with increased recidivism (Clark-Jones, 1999;Cocozza, 1992;Whitbeck, Hoyt, & Bao, 2000). Youth with a combination of conduct problems and depressive symptoms are a highly vulnerable group, being at an extreme risk for school failure, peer rejection, violent behavior, drug and alcohol abuse, suicide, adult psychiatric illness, and serious criminality (Capaldi, 1991(Capaldi, , 1992Cole & Carpentieri, 1990;McConaughy & Skiba, 1993;Rapp & Wodarski, 1997;Robinson, Jenson, & Yaffe, 1992 NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript be in "double jeopardy," more information is needed about factors that might place them at risk for depression.Two important predictors of depressive symptoms and clinical depression among youth are stressful events and lack of parental support. The relationship between depression and stressful life events has consistently been modest but significant in samples of children and adolescents (Garber & Hilsman, 1992;McFarlane, Bellissimo, & Norman, 1995;Olsson, Nordstrom, Arinell, & von Knorring, 1999;Williamson, Birmaher, Anderson, Al-Shabbout, & Ryan, 1995). Longitudinal studies show that in the 12 months prior to the onset of their depression, depressed youth report more stressful life events, particularly in the areas of romantic relationships, education, relationships with friends or parents, and health (Goodyer, ...

Suitability of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support as a measure of functional social support among incarcerated adults with major depressive disorder

“…Estimates of current MDD among people in U.S. prisons ranges upwards to 29% (Prins, 2014). Social support theory indicates that low social support is a significant risk factor for MDD in incarcerated populations; likewise, high social support can buffer mental health complaints (Johnson et al, 2011; Lakey & Cronin, 2008; Marzano, Hawton, Rivlin, & Fazel, 2011; McCarty, Vander Stoep, Kuo, & McCauley, 2006; Potts, 1997). Literature on the mechanism by which social support effects mental health suggests that social support protects people from MDD by buffering the effects of stress on mood (Johnson et al, 2011).…”

“…There is a need to provide clinicians in correctional settings with an accurate assessment of incarcerated adults’ social support to guide their efforts to treat common mental health problems like MDD, reduce suicidality, prepare for re‐entry, and improve other outcomes. Given that social support plays a central role in the etiology and treatment of MDD (Johnson & Zlotnick, 2012; McCarty et al, 2006), being able to accurately assess social support among people in prison with MDD is especially important for guiding clinical care. To do this, a psychometrically sound measure of social support among incarcerated adults is required, yet there are no known measures of social support for prison populations.…”

Internalizing and externalizing problems in immigrant boys and girls

“…Adolescents with co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems comprise a highly vulnerable group being at extreme risk of demonstrating problems in various life domains, including school failure, violent behaviour, and adult psychiatric illness (Capaldi, 1992;Capaldi & Stoolmiller, 1999;McCarty, Stoep, Kuo, & McCauley, 2006). In addition, co-occurring problems may be related to poorer treatment success (Newman, Moffitt, Caspi, & Silva, 1998;Ollendick, Jarrett, Grills-Taquechel, Hovey, & Wolff, 2008).…”

Neighborhood Disorganization, Social Support, Substance Use and Functioning amongst Adolescents; an Analysis of the Ohio Behavioral Health Juvenile Justice Initiative

“…Among these psychiatric conditions, depression is particularly concerning seeing that unrecognized and untreated depression impacts the criminal course and increases recidivism rates (Schubert, Mulvey & Glasheen, 2011;McCarty, Stoep, Kuo, & McCauley, 2006). Depression is often "masked" particularly among youth who present with aggression, violence and disruptive behaviors (Liebenberg & Unger, 2014;Ryan & Redding, 2004).…”

“…Two important predictors of depressive symptoms among youth are stressful life events and lack of parental support (McCarty, Stoep, Kuo & McCauley, 2006). There is evidence that low levels of parental support and low family cohesion are associated with depressive symptoms (Patten et al, 1997).…”