Depicting community perspectives: repeat photography and participatory research as tools for assessing environmental services in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

Abstract

Efforts have been made to provide a scientific basis for using environmental services as a conceptual tool to enhance conservation and improve livelihoods in protected mountain areas (MtPAS). Little attention has been paid to participatory research or locals' concerns as environmental service (ES) users and providers. Such perspectives can illuminate the complex interplay between mountain ecosystems, environmental services and the determinants of human well-being. Repeat photography, long used in geographical fieldwork, is new as a qualitative research tool. This study uses a novel application of repeat photography as a diachronic photo-diary to examine local perceptions of change in ES in Sagarmatha National Park. Results show a consensus among locals on adverse changes to ES, particularly protection against natural hazards, such as landslides and floods, in the UNESCO World Heritage Site. We argue that our methodology could complement biophysical ecosystem assessments in MtPAS, especially since assessing ES, and acting on that, requires integrating diverse stakeholders' knowledge, recognizing power imbalances and grappling with complex social-ecological systems.

Participatory assessment and mapping of ecosystem services in a data-poor region: Case study of community-managed forests in central Nepal

“…-number; ' ML' -megalitres; 'HL' -head load ( $ 30 kg); 'tonnes' -metric tonnes (1000 kg); 'ha' -hectare; 'ha À 1' -per hectare; 'yr À 1' -per year; 'm 3' -cubic metre. priority ES depends on who is involved, where they live and their interactive relationship with the landscape (Garrard et al, 2012). The novelty of the study lies in the use of relatively simple, participatory tools for assessing and mapping various ES at the landscape level.…”

“…2, details also in Appendix I: online supporting material), including direct field observation, semi-structured interviews (SSI, e.g., Bryman, 2001;Patton, 2002), focus group discussions (FGD, e.g., Gray, 2004;Waldegrave, 2003), repeat photography (e.g., Garrard et al, 2012;Niraula et al, 2013;Webb et al, 2010) and expert opinions (e.g., Burkhard et al, 2009Burkhard et al, , 2012Vihervaara et al, 2010;Yapp et al, 2010. This information was integrated with land use and land cover information procured from government agencies and in a geographical information system (e.g., Brown, 2004;Fagerholm and Käyhkö, 2009;Plieninger et al, 2013;Tyrväinen et al, 2007).…”

“…These include: biophysical and environmental models (Bryan et al, 2010;Crossman et al, 2012); expert opinion or professional judgment (Burkhard et al, 2010a(Burkhard et al, , 2010bVihervaara et al, 2010;Yapp et al, 2010; users perception (e.g., Smith and Sullivan, 2014) or social and community values (Raymond et al, 2009;Sherrouse et al, 2011;van Oort et al, in this issue); participatory approaches (Fagerholm et al, 2012;Palomo et al, 2013); visual knowledge by repeat photography (Garrard et al, 2012;Niraula et al, 2013;Webb et al, 2010); participatory geographical information system (PGIS) tools (Baral, 2008;Brown, 2013;Brown and Donovan, 2014;Brown et al, 2012;Sieber, 2006); and remote sensing and GIS tools (Baral et al, 2014b;Frank et al, 2012;Vihervaara et al, 2012).…”

Understanding social–ecological interdependence using ecosystem services perspective in Bhutan, Eastern Himalayas

“…However, social preferences for ecosystem services depend on who is involved, where they live, and how they interact with their landscape (Garrard et al. , Paudyal et al. ).…”

“…, Chaudhary and Bawa , Karanth and Nepal ), especially in mountain areas where development threatens ecosystems and local dependence on ecosystem services is comparatively high (Garrard et al. , Turner et al. ).…”