Density distributions, magnetic field structures, and fragmentation in high-mass star formation
H. Beuther,
C. Gieser,
J. D. Soler
et al.
Abstract:The fragmentation of high-mass star-forming regions depends on a variety of physical parameters, including density, the magnetic field, and turbulent gas properties. We evaluate the importance of the density and magnetic field structures in relation to the fragmentation properties during high-mass star formation. Observing the large parsec-scale Stokes $I$ millimeter dust continuum emission with the IRAM 30\,m telescope and the intermediate-scale ($<$0.1\,pc) polarized submillimeter dust emission with the … Show more
“…What dominates the fragmentation is one key question in star formation that has been investigated in some previous studies (e.g., Zhang et al 2009;Palau et al 2013Palau et al , 2015; Beuther et al 2024). We have the largest sample in IRDCs thanks to the mosaicked high-spatial resolution and highsensitivity ALMA observations.…”
Section: Thermal Versus Turbulent Jeans Fragmentationmentioning
Fragmentation during the early stages of high-mass star formation is crucial for understanding the formation of high-mass clusters. We investigated fragmentation within 39 high-mass star-forming clumps as part of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of 70 μm Dark High-mass Clumps in Early Stages (ASHES) survey. Considering projection effects, we have estimated core separations for 839 cores identified from the continuum emission and found mean values between 0.08 and 0.32 pc within each clump. We find compatibility of the observed core separations and masses with the thermal Jeans length and mass, respectively. We also present subclump structures revealed by the 7 m array continuum emission. Comparison of the Jeans parameters using clump and subclump densities with the separation and masses of gravitationally bound cores suggests that they can be explained by clump fragmentation, implying the simultaneous formation of subclumps and cores within rather than a step-by-step hierarchical fragmentation. The number of cores in each clump positively correlates with the clump surface density and the number expected from the thermal Jeans fragmentation. We also find that the higher the fraction of protostellar cores, the larger the dynamic range of the core mass, implying that the cores are growing in mass as the clump evolves. The ASHES sample exhibits various fragmentation patterns: aligned, scattered, clustered, and subclustered. Using the
Q
-parameter, which can help distinguish between centrally condensed and subclustered spatial core distributions, we finally find that in the early evolutionary stages of high-mass star formation, cores tend to follow a subclustered distribution.
“…What dominates the fragmentation is one key question in star formation that has been investigated in some previous studies (e.g., Zhang et al 2009;Palau et al 2013Palau et al , 2015; Beuther et al 2024). We have the largest sample in IRDCs thanks to the mosaicked high-spatial resolution and highsensitivity ALMA observations.…”
Section: Thermal Versus Turbulent Jeans Fragmentationmentioning
Fragmentation during the early stages of high-mass star formation is crucial for understanding the formation of high-mass clusters. We investigated fragmentation within 39 high-mass star-forming clumps as part of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of 70 μm Dark High-mass Clumps in Early Stages (ASHES) survey. Considering projection effects, we have estimated core separations for 839 cores identified from the continuum emission and found mean values between 0.08 and 0.32 pc within each clump. We find compatibility of the observed core separations and masses with the thermal Jeans length and mass, respectively. We also present subclump structures revealed by the 7 m array continuum emission. Comparison of the Jeans parameters using clump and subclump densities with the separation and masses of gravitationally bound cores suggests that they can be explained by clump fragmentation, implying the simultaneous formation of subclumps and cores within rather than a step-by-step hierarchical fragmentation. The number of cores in each clump positively correlates with the clump surface density and the number expected from the thermal Jeans fragmentation. We also find that the higher the fraction of protostellar cores, the larger the dynamic range of the core mass, implying that the cores are growing in mass as the clump evolves. The ASHES sample exhibits various fragmentation patterns: aligned, scattered, clustered, and subclustered. Using the
Q
-parameter, which can help distinguish between centrally condensed and subclustered spatial core distributions, we finally find that in the early evolutionary stages of high-mass star formation, cores tend to follow a subclustered distribution.
“…However, measuring the magnetic field strength and morphology in IRDCs is challenging due to their relatively far distances (d 3 kpc). Advances in the polarimetric capabilities of various single-dish telescopes (e.g., SOFIA-HAWC+, JCMT-POL2, LMT-TolTEC, and IRAM-30m-NIKA2) and the full polarization capabilities of interferometric facilities such as ALMA, SMA, and VLA (e.g., Pattle et al 2017;Beltrán et al 2019;Dall'Olio et al 2019;Añez-López et al 2020;Beuther et al 2020;Cortés et al 2021;Fernández-López et al 2021;Palau et al 2021;Liu et al 2023;Maity et al 2023;Beuther et al 2024) are enabling the studies of B-fields in IRDCs.…”
Magnetic fields may play a crucial role in setting the initial conditions of massive star and star cluster formation. To investigate this, we report SOFIA-HAWC+ 214 μm observations of polarized thermal dust emission and high-resolution GBT-Argus C18O(1-0) observations toward the massive Infrared Dark Cloud (IRDC) G28.37+0.07. Considering the local dispersion of B-field orientations, we produce a map of the B-field strength of the IRDC, which exhibits values between ∼0.03 and 1 mG based on a refined Davis–Chandrasekhar–Fermi method proposed by Skalidis & Tassis. Comparing to a map of inferred density, the IRDC exhibits a B–n relation with a power-law index of 0.51 ± 0.02, which is consistent with a scenario of magnetically regulated anisotropic collapse. Consideration of the mass-to-flux ratio map indicates that magnetic fields are dynamically important in most regions of the IRDC. A virial analysis of a sample of massive, dense cores in the IRDC, including evaluation of magnetic and kinetic internal and surface terms, indicates consistency with virial equilibrium, sub-Alfvénic conditions, and a dominant role for B-fields in regulating collapse. A clear alignment of magnetic field morphology with the direction of the steepest column density gradient is also detected. However, there is no preferred orientation of protostellar outflow directions with the B-field. Overall, these results indicate that magnetic fields play a crucial role in regulating massive star and star cluster formation, and therefore they need to be accounted for in theoretical models of these processes.
We simulate the formation of molecular clouds in colliding flows of warm neutral medium with the adaptive mesh refinement code flash in eight simulations with varying initial magnetic field strength, between 0.01–5 μG. We include a chemical network to treat heating and cooling and to follow the formation of molecular gas. The initial magnetic field strength influences the fragmentation of the forming cloud because it prohibits motions perpendicular to the field direction and hence impacts the formation of large-scale filamentary structures. Molecular clump and core formation occurs anyhow. We identify 3D clumps and 3D cores, which are defined as connected, CO-rich regions. Additionally, 3D cores are heavily shielded. While we do not claim those 3D objects to be directly comparable to observations, this enables us to analyse their full virial state. With increasing field strength, we find more fragments with a smaller average mass; yet the dynamics of the forming clumps and cores only weakly depends on the initial magnetic field strength. The molecular clumps are mostly unbound, probably transient objects, which are weakly confined by ram pressure or thermal pressure, indicating that they are swept up by the turbulent flow. They experience significant fluctuations in the mass flux through their surface, such that the Eulerian reference frame shows a dominant time-dependent term due to their indistinct nature. We define the cores to encompass highly shielded molecular gas. Most cores are in gravitational-kinetic equipartition and are well described by the common virial parameter $\alpha _\mathrm{vir}$, while some undergo minor dispersion by kinetic surface effects.
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