Dengue Immunopathogenesis: A Crosstalk between Host and Viral Factors Leading to Disease: PART II - DENV Infection, Adaptive Immune Responses, and NS1 Pathogenesis

Abstract

Severe disease is associated with serial infection with DENV of different serotypes. Thus, primary DENV infections normally cause asymptomatic infections, and secondary heterotypic infections with a new DENV serotype potentially increase the risks of developing severe disease. Despite many proposed hypotheses trying to explain it, the exact immunological mechanism leading to severe dengue disease is unknown. In turn, severe manifestations are believed to be a consequence of the combinations of many immunopathogenic mechanisms involving viral and host factors leading to increased pathogenesis and disease. Of these mechanisms, the adaptive immune response has been proposed to play a critical role in the development of severe dengue manifestations. This includes the effect of non-neutralizing but enhancing antibodies produced during primary infections, which results in enhanced-DENV infection of Fc-γ-receptor-expressing cells (e.g. monocytes and macrophages) during DENV heterotypic exposure in a phenomenon called antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE); the increased activation of memory T cells during secondary infections, which has low affinity for the current infecting serotype and high affinity for a past infection with a different serotype known as the original antigenic sin; the unbalanced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have a direct effect on vascular endothelial cells resulting in plasma leak in a phenomenon known as cytokine storm; and the excessive activation of the complement system that causes exacerbated inflammatory responses, increasing disease severity. In addition to the adaptive immune responses, a secreted viral factor known as the nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) has been recently proposed as the missing corner piece of the DENV pathogenesis influencing disease. This Part II of the chapter will discuss the interplay between the distinct host adaptive immune responses and viral factors that together contribute to the development of DENV pathogenesis and severe disease.

Asymptomatic Dengue and Silent Transmission

“…All these mechanisms are known to increase the activation of immune cells, resulting in impaired immune responses or cytokine storms that cause endothelium dysfunction and increase vascular permeability. However, multiple host and viral factors seem to be influencing the determination of the disease severity of DENV infections via favorable and unfavorable interactions thus have triggered much research interest [55].…”