Demographic predictors of cognitive change in ethnically diverse older persons.

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate how demographic variables relate to cognitive change and address whether cross-sectional demographic effects on cognitive tests are mirrored in differences in longitudinal trajectories of cognitive decline. We hypothesized that race and ethnicity, education, and language of test administration would relate to cross-sectional status and that the rate of cognitive decline would differ among African Americans, Hispanics, and Caucasians, across levels of educational attainment, and according to linguistic background. Participants were 404 educationally, ethnically, and cognitively diverse older adults enrolled in an ongoing longitudinal study of cognition. Mixed-effects regression analysis was used to measure baseline status and longitudinal change in episodic memory, executive functioning, and semantic memory. Results showed that ethnicity and education were strongly associated with baseline scores, but were, at most, weakly associated with change in cognition over time after accounting for confounding variables. There was evidence that the episodic-memory scores of Spanish-speaking Hispanic participants with limited education underestimated their true abilities in the initial evaluation, which may reflect lack of familiarity with the testing environment. These results—consistent with other reports in the literature—suggest that cross-sectional effects of demographic variables on cognitive-test scores result from differences in life experiences that directly influence test performance and do not indicate greater disease effects on cognition in minorities and those with limited education.

Cognitive aging in older Black and White persons.

“…That previous studies of racial differences in cognitive aging are approximately evenly split among those showing no difference (Atkinson et al, 2005; Masel & Peek, 2009; Castora-Binkley et al, 2013; Marsiske et al, 2013), more rapid decline in Black persons (Lyketsos, et al 1999; Sachs-Ericsson & Blazer, 2005; Sawyer et al, 2009 Wolinsky et al, 2011), and more rapid decline in White persons (Sloan & Wang, 2005; Alley et al, 2007; Karlamangla et al, 2009; Early et al, 2013) suggests that there are probably not strong racial differences in trajectories of cognitive aging. The present results are consistent with this idea.…”

“…We are aware of only two previous studies that assessed multiple cognitive domains. One found virtually no differences in cognitive decline (Marsiske et al, 2012) but the other study found slightly more rapid decline in White persons relative to Black persons in semantic memory and executive function with no difference in episodic memory decline (Early et al, 2013). The present results suggest similar racial differences in cognitive aging, with less decline in semantic memory, perceptual speed, and visuospatial ability in Black persons compared to White persons, possible differences in working memory, and no differences in episodic memory.…”

Social, Behavioral, and Contextual Influences on Cognitive Function and Decline over the Life Course

“…Whereas earlier longitudinal studies identifi ed that several factors, such as education, infl uence the rate of cognitive decline, newer evidence suggests that rather few factors are associated with the rate of decline for individuals with both high and low initial cognitive scores, especially if potential methodological biases (such as regression to the mean) are adjusted for (Salthouse 2012 ). Further, consistent evidence is found for high-and low-educated individuals declining at similar rates (e.g., Glymour et al 2012b ;Early et al 2013 ;Karlamangla et al 2009 ;Piccinin et al 2013 ;Zahodne et al 2011 ). However, education is a robust proxy of cognitive reserve, refl ected in the fact that brain pathology may be more substantial in high-educated individuals before decline is visible (Bennett et al 2003 ), and education has shown to compensate negative effects of occupational solvent exposure (Sabbath et al 2012 ).…”

Differences in neurocognitive functioning associated with alcohol consumption in a multiethnic rural cohort: A Project FRONTIER study

“…Both women and Non-Hispanic Whites performed better than their male or Hispanic counterparts across a broad range of cognitive domains. These differences are frequently found across demographic groups (Brewster et al, 2014;Early et al, 2013) and have spurred the development of tables that normalize scores for those demographic differences. Interestingly, the only consistent effect on attentional abilities was associated with alcohol consumption pattern, while both gender and ethnicity had partial and contrasting attentional effects.…”