Delineating implicit and explicit processes in neurofeedback learning

Abstract

Highlights This article discusses the role of awareness in neurofeedback (NF) learning. Most implicit NF tasks include explicit goals. Explicit processes are central in skill acquisition and goal-directed behavior. Measures of awareness are suggested to go beyond verbal exit questionnaires. Considering awareness is vital for understanding the learning mechanism of NF.

Training the Conductor of the Brainwave Symphony: In Search of a Common Mechanism of Action for All Methods of Neurofeedback

“…Directive methods of neurofeedback refer to the methods that require the clinician to direct the subject to consciously control specific brainwaves by learning what it feels like to modulate the brainwaves during the session. These methods have also been called explicit methods of neurofeedback, which refers to the fact that the subject learns to become consciously aware of their brain states [84]. The purpose of the directive methods is to learn to voluntarily regulate specific brain activities and, by reinforcing them, these specific activities increase, altering the pattern of brain activity.…”

“…The purpose of the directive methods is to learn to voluntarily regulate specific brain activities and, by reinforcing them, these specific activities increase, altering the pattern of brain activity. Thus, there are two outcomes for directive methods of neurofeedback: (1) how well the subject learned to regulate their own specific brain activities, and (2) improved symptoms and behaviors [84,86].…”

“…Today, there are many methods of neurofeedback using different technologies, data, and protocols (for some reviews, see [61,[63][64][65]84]). Different researchers group the methods in different ways.…”

“…ILF), in which the target signal is continuous and the goal is not necessarily to modulate its activity [65]. Two general categories of methods have emerged in the field of neurofeedback, those that employ a directive, operant conditioning approach, which require explicit awareness and learning by the subject, and those that are non-directive in nature, employing a passive approach, which only require implicit learning of self-regulation of which the subject is likely unaware [84,85]. The directive methods are the most abundant and commonly used neurofeedback methods, and the theories behind them are the easiest to understand and explain.…”

The DecNef collection, fMRI data from closed-loop decoded neurofeedback experiments

“…Because DecNef leverages MVPA, rather than using univariate approaches, it has high target specificity 1 , 6 , 7 . Furthermore, while participants know that a neurofeedback experiment is taking place, they are unaware of the content and purpose of the manipulation - reducing confounds due to cognitive processes, or knowledge about the manipulated dimension 7 , 8 . In its most recent declination, the experimenter can even infer the target neural representation indirectly from surrogate participants through a method called hyperalignment 9 , 10 .…”