“…However, a challenge arises due to the fact that traditional 2D/3D simulations are still distant from being capable of exchanging real-time data with the physical system. To address this issue, AI, especially ML and DL, becomes a HFF highly useful tool for constructing predictive reduced models of the real system (Xuereb Conti et al, 2023;Grabe et al, 2023), optimization purposes (Lin et al, 2018;Guo et al, 2023;Keramati et al, 2022;Aldaghi et al, 2023;Zeeshan et al, 2023), solving inverse problems (Tamaddon-Jahromi et al, 2020;Löhner et al, 2020) and effectively mitigating the computational costs associated with conventional simulations (Zhu et al, 2023;Park and Kim, 2023;Zhang et al, 2023). It must be specified that the standalone CAE simulations do not represent a DT.…”