De Facto Immigration Enforcement, Ice Raid Awareness, and Worker Engagement

Out of the Class and Into the Shadows: Immigration Enforcement and Education Among U.S.-Citizen and Foreign-Born Hispanics

“…Our strategy to focus on immigration-related arrests conducted by ICE at the local level is complementary to approaches applied in previous research, which uses the activation of one or more policies to proxy for enforcement in a given jurisdiction (e.g., Amuedo-Dorantes & Lopez, 2017b; Bellows, 2019; Dee & Murphy, 2020; Pivovarova & Vagi, 2020). This outcome-based approach, or what Amuedo-Dorantes and Antman (2021) refers to as “de facto” immigration policy, allows us to capture the result of variations in enforcement timing and intensity, something that a more rigid indicator for policy activation achieves with relatively limited success. Other studies have used direct enforcement measures to gauge the impact of immigration enforcement on educational outcomes.…”