Interleukin-1 (IL-1
IntroductionInterleukin-1 (IL-1) plays an important role in infection and inflammation. 1 The generation of IL-1 is divided into 2 stages. In the first stage, inflammatory stimuli activate nuclear factor-B (NF-B) to promote the synthesis of pro-IL-1. In the second stage, pro-IL-1 protein is cleaved by caspase-1 to generate mature p17 IL-1 protein. The activation of caspase-1 is dependent on the formation of large multiprotein complexes inflammasomes in macrophages and monocytes. [2][3][4][5][6] Assembly of inflammasomes is stimulated by infection, inflammation, or danger signals. The NACHT domain-, leucine-rich repeat-, and pyrin domaincontaining protein 3 (NLRP3, also known as NALP3 or cryopyrin) inflammasome responds to a large array of stimulation, including microbial products, toxins, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), crystalline, aggregated particles. [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] The NLRP3 protein consists of an N-terminal pyrin domain for protein-protein interaction, a central NACHT domain for nucleotide binding and self-oligomerization, and C-terminal leucine-rich repeat motifs for ligand sensing. Mutation of the NLRP3 gene is associated with several autoinflammatory disorders, and NLRP3 is also linked to gout and diabetes. 5,15 Two signals are required for formation of NLRP3 inflammasome. NF-B-containing inflammatory signals activate NLRP3 expression. 16 A second inflammatory signal then stimulates the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome, through the binding of NLRP3 to apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD domain (ASC) and recruitment of procaspase-1 molecule. Reactive oxygen species 10,13,17 and lysosomal protease cathepsin B 12,13 are potential activators of the NLRP3 inflammasome assembly. However, how inflammatory stimuli promote the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome remains largely unclear. [2][3][4][5][6] In contrast, NLRP1 inflammasome has been successfully reconstituted in vitro with the recombinant proteins. 18 Part of the difficulties is the result of the spontaneous formation of inflammasome in vitro on cell membrane damage during the preparation of cell lysates. 19 Death-associated protein kinase (DAP-kinase, DAPk, or DAPK) is calcium/calmodulin-regulated Ser/Thr kinase that acts as a tumor suppressor. 20,21 Diminished DAPK expression is found in various types of cancer, including B lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. 22-24 DAPK also mediates pathologic damages, such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-triggered neuronal cell death. 25 DAPK is organized into multiple domains: an N-terminal kinase domain, followed by a calcium/calmodulin regulatory fragment, ankyrin repeats, a cytoskeleton binding region, and a C-terminal death domain. The multifunctional domains of DAPK are linked to diverse activities. 20,21 [26][27][28][29] and specific inhibition of T cell receptor-induced activation by DAPK. 30 DAPK is also part of a negative-feedback module in regulating the expression of inflammatory genes. 31 Recent studies reveal an intriguing interpl...