Cytokines as therapeutic targets for cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases

Abstract

Despite major advances in prevention and treatment, cardiac and cerebral atherothrombotic complications still account for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this context, inflammation is involved in the chronic process leading atherosclerotic plaque formation and its complications, as well as in the maladaptive response to acute ischemic events. For this reason, modulation of inflammation is nowadays seen as a promising therapeutic strategy to counteract the burden of cardio- and cerebrovascular disease. Being produced and recognized by both inflammatory and vascular cells, the complex network of cytokines holds key functions in the crosstalk of these two systems and orchestrates the progression of atherothrombosis. By binding to membrane receptors, these soluble mediators trigger specific intracellular signaling pathways eventually leading to the activation of transcription factors and a deep modulation of cell function. Both stimulatory and inhibitory cytokines have been described and progressively reported as markers of disease or interesting therapeutic targets in the cardiovascular field. Nevertheless, cytokine inhibition is burdened by harmful side effects that will most likely prevent its chronic use in favor of acute administrations in well-selected subjects at high risk. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the modulatory role of cytokines on atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Then, we discuss evidence from clinical trials specifically targeting cytokines and the potential implication of these advances into daily clinical practice.

Pleiotropic Effects of Isoflavones in Inflammation and Chronic Degenerative Diseases

“…Cardiovascular diseases: hypertension, dyslipidemia, coronary heart disease, and heart insufficiency are among the main causes of death in the world [ 82 ]. A soy-rich diet (at least 25 g of soy protein daily) has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases [ 83 , 84 , 85 ].…”

Innate Lymphoid Cells and Myocardial Infarction

“…Though not direct evidence for ILCs in MIRI, several groups (22,(41)(42)(43) have reported roles for ILCs in IRI and ILC-related cytokines in MIRI, suggesting that ILCs can play important roles in MIRI, with ILC2s being the most promising candidate.…”

“…( 43 ) summarized the multifactorial and dynamic process of the inflammatory response in MIRI, including TNF-α, IL-4, IL-13, IL-10 and TGF-β. These results suggested that cytokines, especially those related to ILCs, play important roles in MIRI ( 22 ).…”

“…Immune cells participate in the cleanup of necrotic debris, and at the same time initiate a repair response in the myocardium. However, excessive activation of immune cells in heart tissue may lead to cardiomyocyte apoptosis and fibrosis ( 22 ). In this section, we summarize the roles ILCs play in the acute phase of MI, myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, and repair and regeneration of heart tissue after MI.…”

Usefulness of MCP-1 Chemokine in the Monitoring of Patients with Coronary Artery Disease Subjected to Intensive Dietary Intervention: A Pilot Study

“…Inflammation is a central process in the development and destabilisation of atherosclerotic plaques, leading to serious cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and Nutrients 2021, 13, 3047. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093047 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients Nutrients 2021, 13, 3047 2 of 16 stroke [1][2][3]. A number of chemokines is involved in the complex process of atherosclerotic plaque formation to recruit of various leukocytes, such as monocytes, macrophages and T lymphocytes, to the site of developing atheroma [4].…”