Current Status in the Utilization of Biobased Polymers for 3D Printing Process: A Systematic Review of the Materials, Processes, and Challenges

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a revolutionary additive manufacturing technique that allows rapid prototyping of objects with intricate architectures. This Review covers the recent state-of-the-art of biopolymers (protein and carbohydrate-based materials) application in pharmaceutical, bioengineering, and food printing and main reinforcement approaches of biomacromolecular structure for the development of 3D constructs. Some perspectives and main important limitations with the biomaterials utilization for advanced 3D printing procedures are also provided. Because of the improved the ink’s flow behavior and enhance the mechanical strength of resulting printed architectures, biopolymers are the most used materials for 3D printing applications. Biobased polymers by taking advantage of modifying the ink viscosity could improve the resolution of deposited layers, printing precision, and consequently, develop well-defined geometries. In this regard, the rheological properties of printable biopolymeric-based inks and factors affecting ink flow behavior related to structural properties of printed constructs are discussed. On the basis of successful applications of biopolymers in 3D printing, it is suggested that other biomacromolecules and nanoparticles combined with the matrix can be introduced into the ink dispersions to enhance the multifunctionality of 3D structures. Furthermore, tuning the biopolymer’s structural properties offers the most common and essential approach to attain the printed architectures with precisely tailored geometry. We finish the Review by giving a viewpoint of the upcoming 3D printing process and recognize some of the existing bottlenecks facing the blossoming 3D pharmaceutical, bioengineering, and food printing applications.

3D/4D Printing of Polymers: Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Stereolithography (SLA)

“…A variety of AM methods are available to 3D print a wide range of materials including metals [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ], polymers [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ], polymer composites [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], ceramics [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ], and cement [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. The ASTM (ISO/ASTM 52900:2015) has classified the range of AM processes into seven general categories.…”

Development of an Antioxidative Pickering Emulsion Gel through Polyphenol-Inspired Free-Radical Grafting of Microcrystalline Cellulose for 3D Food Printing

“… 1 Commonly, the printable polymeric-based inks must offer well-defined pseudoplasticity to provide low flow resistance through nozzles, but also must offer a gel-like structure, possessing sufficient yield stress, to resist compressive stresses from the capillary effects post-printing. 2 …”

Spirulina‐based composites for 3D‐printing

“…28,29 Commonly applied post-processing strategies to alter the micro-morphology and mechanical properties of a given polymer, fabricated through extrusion-based printing, include: (a) drying processes at various flow rates, pressures, and temperatures, 26,27,28 (b) heat treatments, either to promote thermal annealing 30 or gelatinization, 23,31 and (c) inducing gelation or cross-linking by exposure to selected ion solutions. 28,32 Among drying processes, freezedrying (lyophilization), which dehydrates materials through ice sublimation, allows shape retention even in complex structures. Depending on the freezing pattern, solvent, and sample composition, structures with different porosity and pore morphology can be attained.…”

“…35 However, freeze-drying is slow and energy-intensive due to the low-temperature and -pressure requirements, and leads to inherently porous samples (aerogels). 28 In contrast, drying can be achieved quickly at ambient pressures and higher temperatures through oven-drying. Besides driving water evaporation, drying biomass-based materials at temperatures close to their gelatinization transition can effectively alter their micro-morphology by using the bound water to plasticize the biomass matrix.…”